WILLIAMS SHAKESPEARE
William Shakespeare was a great English playwright, dramatist and poet who lived during the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries. Shakespeare is considered to be the greatest playwright of all time. No other writer's plays have been produced so many times or read so widely in so many countries as his. Shakespeare was born to middle class parents. His father, John, was a Stratford businessman. He was a glove maker who owned a leather shop. John Shakespeare was a well-known and respected man in the town. He held several important local governmental positions. William Shakespeare's mother was Mary Arden. Though she was the daughter of a local farmer, she was related to a wealthy family. Mary Arden and John Shakespeare were married in 1557. William Shakespeare was born in Stratford in 1564. He was one of eight children. The Shakespeare's were well-respected prominent people. When William Shakespeare was about seven years old, he probably began attending the Stratford Grammar School with other boys of his social class. Students went to school year round attending school for nine hours a day. The teachers were strict disciplinarians. Though Shakespeare spent long hours at school, his boyhood was probably fascinating. Stratford was a lively town and during holidays, it was known to put on pageants and many popular shows. It also held several large fairs during the year. Stratford was an exciting place to live. Stratford also had fields and woods surrounding it giving William the opportunity to hunt and trap small game. The River Avon, which ran through the town, allowed him to fish also. Shakespeare's' poems and plays show his love of nature and rural life which reflects his childhood. On November 28, 1582, Shakespeare married Anne Hathaway of the neighboring village of Shottery. She was twenty-six, and he was only eighteen at the time. They had three children. Susana was their first and then they had twins, Hamnet and Judith. Hamnet, Shakespeare's son, died in 1596. In 1607, his daughter Susana got married. Shakespeare's other daughter, Judith, got married in 1616. In London, Shakespeare's career took off. It is believed that he may have become well known in London theatrical life by 1592. By that time, he had joined one of the city's repertory theater companies. These companies were made up of a permanent cast of actors who presented different plays week after week. The companies were commercial organizations that depended on admission from their audience. Scholars know that Shakespeare belonged to one of the most popular acting companies in London called The Lord Chamberlain's Men. Shakespeare was a leading member of the group from 1594 for the rest of his career. 1594 had produced at least six of Shakespeare's plays. During Shakespeare's life, there were two monarchs who ruled England. They were Henry the eighth and Elizabeth the first. Both were impressed with Shakespeare which made his name known. There is evidence that he was a member of a traveling theater group, and a schoolmaster. In 1594, he became an actor and playwright for Lord Chamberlain's Men. In 1599, he became a part owner of the prosperous Globe Theater. He also was a part owner of the Blackfriars Theater as of 1609. Shakespeare retired to Stratford in 1613 where he wrote many of his excellent plays. There are many reasons as to why William Shakespeare is so famous. He is generally considered to be both the greatest dramatist the world has ever known as well as the finest poet who has written in the English language. Many reasons can be given for Shakespeare's enormous appeal. His fame basically is from his great understanding of human nature. He was able to find universal human qualities and put them in a dramatic situation creating characters that are timeless. Yet he had the ability to create characters that are highly individual human beings. Their struggles in life are universal. Sometimes they are successful and sometimes their lives are full of pain, suffering, and failure. In addition to his realistic view of human nature, Shakespeare had a vast knowledge of a variety of subjects. These subjects include music, law, Bible, stage, art, politics, history, hunting, and sports. Shakespeare had a tremendous influence on culture and literature throughout the world. He contributed greatly to the development of the English language. Many words and phrases from Shakespeare's plays and poems have become part of our speech. Shakespeare's plays and poems have become a required part of education in the United States. Therefore, his ideas on subjects such as romantic love, heroism, comedy, and tragedy have helped shape the attitudes of millions of people. His portrayals of historical figures and events have influenced our thinking more than what has been written in history books. The world has admired and respected many great writers, but only Shakespeare has generated such enormous continuing interest. Shakespeare's plays are usually divided into three major categories. These are comedy, tragedy, and history. Three plays which are in the category of comedy are The Comedy of Errors, The Taming of the Shrew, and The Two Gentlemen of Verone. Three plays which are in the category of tragedy are Romeo and Juliet, Titus Andronicus, and Julius Caesar. In the category of history, three plays are Henry V, Richard II, and Richard III.
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Saturday, June 23, 2007
BIOGRAPHY OF ALBERT EINSTEIN.
ALBERT EINSTEIN The German-American physicist Albert EinsteiN, contributed more than any other scientist to the 20th-century . Born in the town of Ulm, Germany, Mar. 14, 1879, HE then later died in Princeton, N.J., Apr. 18, 1955. In the wake of World War I, Einstein's theories, especially his theory of relativity, seemed to many people to point to a pure quality of human thought, one far removed from the war and its aftermath. Seldom has a scientist received such public attention for having the ability for learning thet he had. in 1905, Einstein examined the phenomenon discovered by Max Planck, according to which electromagnetic energy seemed to be emitted from radiating objects in quantities that were ultimately discrete. The energy of these emitted quantities--the so-called light-quanta--was directly proportional to the frequency of the radiation. This circumstance was perplexing because classical electromagnetic theory, based on Maxwell's equations and the laws of thermodynamics, had assumed that electromagnetic energy consisted of waves propagating in a hypothetical, all-pervasive medium called the luminiferous ether, and that the waves could contain any amount of energy no matter how small. Einstein used Planck's quantum hypothesis to describe visible electromagnetic radiation, or light. According to Einstein's heuristic viewpoint, light could be imagined to consist of discrete bundles of radiation. Einstein used this interpretation to explain the photoelectric effect, by which certain metals emit electrons when illuminated by light with a given frequency. Einstein's theory, and his subsequent elaboration of it, formed the basis for much of quantum mechanics. Another of Einsteins theories concerned statistical mechanics, a field of study that had been elaborated by, among others, Ludwig Boltzmann and Josiah Willard Gibbs. Unaware of Gibbs' contributions, Einstein extended Boltzmann's work and calculated the average trajectory of a microscopic particle buffeted by random collisions with molecules in a fluid or in a gas. Einstein observed that his calculations could account for Brownian motion, the apparently erratic movement of pollen in fluids, which had been noted by the British botanist Robert Brown. Einstein's paper provided convincing evidence for the physical existence of atom-sized molecules, which had already received much theoretical discussion. His results were independently discovered by the Polish physicist Marian von Smoluchowski and later elaborated by the French physicist Jean Perrin. Albert has contributed more theories that help us during everyday life then anyone ever has. He has explaned what was expaned before him in an incorrect way. If he was never born, we would think of the world in a completly different manner. In my opinion, he has benifitted the world more then anyone has ever did.
ALBERT EINSTEIN The German-American physicist Albert EinsteiN, contributed more than any other scientist to the 20th-century . Born in the town of Ulm, Germany, Mar. 14, 1879, HE then later died in Princeton, N.J., Apr. 18, 1955. In the wake of World War I, Einstein's theories, especially his theory of relativity, seemed to many people to point to a pure quality of human thought, one far removed from the war and its aftermath. Seldom has a scientist received such public attention for having the ability for learning thet he had. in 1905, Einstein examined the phenomenon discovered by Max Planck, according to which electromagnetic energy seemed to be emitted from radiating objects in quantities that were ultimately discrete. The energy of these emitted quantities--the so-called light-quanta--was directly proportional to the frequency of the radiation. This circumstance was perplexing because classical electromagnetic theory, based on Maxwell's equations and the laws of thermodynamics, had assumed that electromagnetic energy consisted of waves propagating in a hypothetical, all-pervasive medium called the luminiferous ether, and that the waves could contain any amount of energy no matter how small. Einstein used Planck's quantum hypothesis to describe visible electromagnetic radiation, or light. According to Einstein's heuristic viewpoint, light could be imagined to consist of discrete bundles of radiation. Einstein used this interpretation to explain the photoelectric effect, by which certain metals emit electrons when illuminated by light with a given frequency. Einstein's theory, and his subsequent elaboration of it, formed the basis for much of quantum mechanics. Another of Einsteins theories concerned statistical mechanics, a field of study that had been elaborated by, among others, Ludwig Boltzmann and Josiah Willard Gibbs. Unaware of Gibbs' contributions, Einstein extended Boltzmann's work and calculated the average trajectory of a microscopic particle buffeted by random collisions with molecules in a fluid or in a gas. Einstein observed that his calculations could account for Brownian motion, the apparently erratic movement of pollen in fluids, which had been noted by the British botanist Robert Brown. Einstein's paper provided convincing evidence for the physical existence of atom-sized molecules, which had already received much theoretical discussion. His results were independently discovered by the Polish physicist Marian von Smoluchowski and later elaborated by the French physicist Jean Perrin. Albert has contributed more theories that help us during everyday life then anyone ever has. He has explaned what was expaned before him in an incorrect way. If he was never born, we would think of the world in a completly different manner. In my opinion, he has benifitted the world more then anyone has ever did.
BOEING-700.
The Boeing 700’s are very capable of handling duties in the commercial and military world. The Boeing 700’s are capable of handling many tasks in the commercial and military world. With the introduction of the 707 in the late fifties to the most recent 777 in the early nineties the, 700’s have dominated the commercial world for five decades. They are a line of aircraft that are capable of handling many roles from basic civilian transport to various military needs. They are the people movers of the 20th century. Each with a large carrying capacity combined with the range of a jet aircraft they have moved more people longer distances than what was once thought possible. Boeing has truly produced some of the greatest aircraft in history. The various duties that the 700’s perform are quite extraordinary. It all started in the fifties. There was a growing demand for a commercial airliner that could move a greater number of people farther and faster. The age of the jet engine still had not reached to civilian transportation. There was still a fear of the jet because of lack of reliability, but with the advancement of technology the jet engine now had become more even reliable than the piston engine. The need for a jet engine powered plane was growing. Airlines still were looking for a plane that could cross the Atlantic Ocean without a refueling stop. The Lockheed Super Connies, a piston powered plane, were able to cross the Atlantic Ocean with out stopping on the eastbound leg, but they had to stop in Gander, Newfoundland to refuel on the westbound leg. The airlines desired a plane that could easily travel the Atlantic with out a stop. The piston engine just wasn’t going to do it, the jet engine was the answer to the question. Boeing realized this and moved to look for a design for a jet powered plane. At first Boeing was looking to modify existing aircraft with jet engines to perform the tasks. They quickly realized that they needed a whole new aircraft. The Boeing 707 was born. The first Boeing 707 was delivered to Pan America airlines in May of 1958 (Bauer, 218). Sales started out slow in fact the 707 almost died many times in it’s first couple years of existence. It wasn’t until Boeing modified the 707 by increasing the overall length, the wing span, and adding more powerful engines did the 707 confirm its place in as a commercial transporter. With the new modifications the 707 became a very capable aircraft, crossing the Atlantic Ocean became a routine affair. With the introduction of the 707 transatlantic travel doubled in two years (Bauer, 195). Airlines’ profitability soared due to the new capabilities of the 707 presented. The 707 began a new era and improved the way people are flown. The 707 being the first major jet airliner saw many applications and variations in it’s lifetime. There were thirteen variations of the 707, they varied in capacity, range, and speed (Wright,49). Each variation was designed to meet a specific needs of an individual airline. Some 707’s could carry a larger capacity of passengers over a shorter distance, were as another variant could carry fewer passengers over a longer distance. With all of these variations the 707 left little room for the Douglas DC-8 which was once though to be a major treat to Boeing. The 707 could meet any need of an airline; this is one reason that made the 707 such a versatile aircraft and why it dominated the market. The 707 also saw plenty of action in uniform. It’s most useful application came in the way of the KC-135 Stratotanker. It was modified to perform in-flight refueling task for the United States Air Force. The 707 saw a healthy lifespan as the KC-135, of the 735 units build in the early sixties 550 still remain in service today (www.Boeing.com). The 707 also had the very privileged role of presidential transport. As Air Force One it started its career in 1962 and served seven Presidents. It was only to be replace by one of it’s bigger brothers the Boeing 747. Another of one of it’s more interesting applications was that of the “Vomet Come” a modified KC-135 to make large in-flight arcs to provide a weightless environment to train NASA astronauts. Altogether the 707 and its derivatives saw many varied and interesting applications. With the 707 fulfilling the needs for a long range jetliner there was a demand by the airline industry for a short to medium range jet. A jet that was designed for short-range use would provide savings over a long-range jet and faster travel times that were presently completed by prop driven planes. Boeing went to the drawing boards and came out with the 727. When the 727 finally came to production it came out with better performance that what was originally planned. “As throughout Boeing’s history, its strong, patient, intense engineering efforts had once more been the key” (Bauer, 226). The 727 filled the duty of short to medium range better than any other aircraft. It showed in the sales and the 727 became at the time the most selling Boeing aircraft, but that title would not remain very long. The Boeing 737 became the most selling commercial jetliner in the world. To date it has sold 3,158 units and there are still more on order (www.Boeing.com). Its primary role is short to medium range passenger transport. The 737 were to be a gradual replacement to the 727 and did so quite well, it became known as the “Little Giant.” The 737 also proved to be a very rugged aircraft, with a kit add-on to the landing gears it made it possible for the 737 to land on unimproved runways like a grass field or a gravel runway. The 737 also were far superior in its ability to take off from high altitude, short runways. These abilities made the 737 very versatile it could link many areas that were unable maintain a modern airport that would have a paved runway (Bauer, 250). One key feature to the 737, which made it the success it was, was the decision to make the plane six seats abreast. Douglas was the main competition in the beginning has a plane that was five seats abreast. Even with Douglas’s advantage in speed and range it could never match the seat per-mile cost the 737 gave. The single decision, which meant about a 17inch increase of diameter over the DOUGLAS DC-9, meant the success of the 737 and the failure of the DC-9. Above: Comparison between the DC-9 and 737 cross-sections. With the ruggedness of the 737 it sees several applications for the Military. Its most widely used application is as a training aid for both pilots and navigators. Pilots use the USAF designated T-43 737s as a flight trainer for large cargo and transport aircraft. The 737 is a large aircraft but not too large aircraft, it provides the perfect stepping stone for pilots into the huge birds that are present in today’s Air Force. It also provides navigational training. Its wider design offers plenty of room for the trainees and their instructors. One T-43 has about 19 stations for its students (Minton, 31). The T-43 provides a very accommodating learning environment for the flight students. The largest and most infamous member of the family is the Boeing 747, the “Jumbo Jet”.” This is an aircraft that has changed commercial airliners forever. With its sheer size it put itself in a class of it’s own. The 747 offer a lower seat per-mile cost and a more efficient way for transportation than any other aircraft. It can move more people and cargo farther and faster. “The 707 brought jet transportation to people. The 747 brought jet transportation to the everyday people” (Norris and Wagner, 26). 747s have become the backbone of many airlines, in that they handle more people and cargo than any of their other planes. 747 not only provides a highly efficient people mover it has also been a great improvement of cargo transportation. Some modified 747 have a large upward swinging door at the nose of the plane. This door allows for great ease in loading large cargo items. Boeing also offered the option of a side panel door for loading. This was mainly used in the “Combi” 747; they were 747 they would transport people and cargo at the same time. The 747 also serve several roles in the Military. Most notably is in the application of presidential transportation as Air Force One. The 747 replace the 707 as Air Force One with great pride. With the increase in room and luxury the President hasn’t had a better ride since. The 747 also found itself the solution to a rather large problem that is of the transportation of the Space Shuttle. There really is no other way to transport the large orbiter than strapping it onto the top of a 747. NASA bought an ex-American Airlines 747 in 1977 and has been using it ever since (Gilchrist, 61). By the late seventies the 727 and 737 were showing their age. Boeing was unable to sell newly modified versions of the two aircraft and they soon realized that a whole new aircraft was in need. The new aircraft did not come in the form of a single plane but in two completely different airplanes that would pick up the slack in the short to medium range jet planes. These planes would be the 757 and the 767. They would prove to be very qualified successors to the 727 and the 737 proving themselves in both the commercial and military world. In fact the 767 came out of production with great performance than what was original planned. “Getting it into service, getting it under our original cost estimates and one day early-I don’t know how you can improve on that. And that’s due to the great team at Boeing” (Bauer, 320). The short to medium range jet had been modernized with increases in performance of its capacity, speed, and fuel consumption. The Military had their eye on the 767. It was as wide-bodied aircraft similar in dimensions to the 737 and the wider body is what the Military saw most appealing. One of the primary functions the 767 serves is in the AWACS (Airborne Warning and Control System) program. It is a 767 modified with a large circular disc on the top. The disc is composed of radars and antennas, it purpose is to target and track targets from a long range, this information is then communicated to fighters on stand by. The body of the plane has a crew and a large amount of computer equipment used in the process of determining targets. Boeing has some more plans for the 767, Boeing see it a very capable candidate for a tanker/transport variant that would provide in flight refueling and transportation duties (www.Boeing.com). The last in the family is the 777, which were introduced, in the early nineties. It is a complete new generation of aircraft with the complete integration of computers. The 777 has two main variants presently they are the 777-200 and the 777-300. Their main difference is length and capacity, the 300 is about 33 feet longer and can hold about 70 more passengers than the 200. Both will work to satisfy the different needs of an airline. A newer version is in the works too. It is the 777-400 planned to have even greater capacity that what is now present. The 777 should gradually replace the 747 as the large capacity long-range jet (www.Boeing.com). The 777 are the plane of the future and will have many service roles in the commercial world. The line of the Boeing 700 aircraft is undeniably a very versatile line of aircraft. From the beginning they have dominated in commercial jet sales and for good reason. Boeing has always made their aircraft with the utmost quality and attention to detail. Boeing will test and test again until they get it right and that shows in their products. The 700’s serve any commercial and military need placed on them. They have made long distant travel a comfort and a pleasure to many. It is hard to imagine what is would be like without Boeing. It is very safe to say that commercial airline travel would simply not be at the same caliber we find it today.
The Boeing 700’s are very capable of handling duties in the commercial and military world. The Boeing 700’s are capable of handling many tasks in the commercial and military world. With the introduction of the 707 in the late fifties to the most recent 777 in the early nineties the, 700’s have dominated the commercial world for five decades. They are a line of aircraft that are capable of handling many roles from basic civilian transport to various military needs. They are the people movers of the 20th century. Each with a large carrying capacity combined with the range of a jet aircraft they have moved more people longer distances than what was once thought possible. Boeing has truly produced some of the greatest aircraft in history. The various duties that the 700’s perform are quite extraordinary. It all started in the fifties. There was a growing demand for a commercial airliner that could move a greater number of people farther and faster. The age of the jet engine still had not reached to civilian transportation. There was still a fear of the jet because of lack of reliability, but with the advancement of technology the jet engine now had become more even reliable than the piston engine. The need for a jet engine powered plane was growing. Airlines still were looking for a plane that could cross the Atlantic Ocean without a refueling stop. The Lockheed Super Connies, a piston powered plane, were able to cross the Atlantic Ocean with out stopping on the eastbound leg, but they had to stop in Gander, Newfoundland to refuel on the westbound leg. The airlines desired a plane that could easily travel the Atlantic with out a stop. The piston engine just wasn’t going to do it, the jet engine was the answer to the question. Boeing realized this and moved to look for a design for a jet powered plane. At first Boeing was looking to modify existing aircraft with jet engines to perform the tasks. They quickly realized that they needed a whole new aircraft. The Boeing 707 was born. The first Boeing 707 was delivered to Pan America airlines in May of 1958 (Bauer, 218). Sales started out slow in fact the 707 almost died many times in it’s first couple years of existence. It wasn’t until Boeing modified the 707 by increasing the overall length, the wing span, and adding more powerful engines did the 707 confirm its place in as a commercial transporter. With the new modifications the 707 became a very capable aircraft, crossing the Atlantic Ocean became a routine affair. With the introduction of the 707 transatlantic travel doubled in two years (Bauer, 195). Airlines’ profitability soared due to the new capabilities of the 707 presented. The 707 began a new era and improved the way people are flown. The 707 being the first major jet airliner saw many applications and variations in it’s lifetime. There were thirteen variations of the 707, they varied in capacity, range, and speed (Wright,49). Each variation was designed to meet a specific needs of an individual airline. Some 707’s could carry a larger capacity of passengers over a shorter distance, were as another variant could carry fewer passengers over a longer distance. With all of these variations the 707 left little room for the Douglas DC-8 which was once though to be a major treat to Boeing. The 707 could meet any need of an airline; this is one reason that made the 707 such a versatile aircraft and why it dominated the market. The 707 also saw plenty of action in uniform. It’s most useful application came in the way of the KC-135 Stratotanker. It was modified to perform in-flight refueling task for the United States Air Force. The 707 saw a healthy lifespan as the KC-135, of the 735 units build in the early sixties 550 still remain in service today (www.Boeing.com). The 707 also had the very privileged role of presidential transport. As Air Force One it started its career in 1962 and served seven Presidents. It was only to be replace by one of it’s bigger brothers the Boeing 747. Another of one of it’s more interesting applications was that of the “Vomet Come” a modified KC-135 to make large in-flight arcs to provide a weightless environment to train NASA astronauts. Altogether the 707 and its derivatives saw many varied and interesting applications. With the 707 fulfilling the needs for a long range jetliner there was a demand by the airline industry for a short to medium range jet. A jet that was designed for short-range use would provide savings over a long-range jet and faster travel times that were presently completed by prop driven planes. Boeing went to the drawing boards and came out with the 727. When the 727 finally came to production it came out with better performance that what was originally planned. “As throughout Boeing’s history, its strong, patient, intense engineering efforts had once more been the key” (Bauer, 226). The 727 filled the duty of short to medium range better than any other aircraft. It showed in the sales and the 727 became at the time the most selling Boeing aircraft, but that title would not remain very long. The Boeing 737 became the most selling commercial jetliner in the world. To date it has sold 3,158 units and there are still more on order (www.Boeing.com). Its primary role is short to medium range passenger transport. The 737 were to be a gradual replacement to the 727 and did so quite well, it became known as the “Little Giant.” The 737 also proved to be a very rugged aircraft, with a kit add-on to the landing gears it made it possible for the 737 to land on unimproved runways like a grass field or a gravel runway. The 737 also were far superior in its ability to take off from high altitude, short runways. These abilities made the 737 very versatile it could link many areas that were unable maintain a modern airport that would have a paved runway (Bauer, 250). One key feature to the 737, which made it the success it was, was the decision to make the plane six seats abreast. Douglas was the main competition in the beginning has a plane that was five seats abreast. Even with Douglas’s advantage in speed and range it could never match the seat per-mile cost the 737 gave. The single decision, which meant about a 17inch increase of diameter over the DOUGLAS DC-9, meant the success of the 737 and the failure of the DC-9. Above: Comparison between the DC-9 and 737 cross-sections. With the ruggedness of the 737 it sees several applications for the Military. Its most widely used application is as a training aid for both pilots and navigators. Pilots use the USAF designated T-43 737s as a flight trainer for large cargo and transport aircraft. The 737 is a large aircraft but not too large aircraft, it provides the perfect stepping stone for pilots into the huge birds that are present in today’s Air Force. It also provides navigational training. Its wider design offers plenty of room for the trainees and their instructors. One T-43 has about 19 stations for its students (Minton, 31). The T-43 provides a very accommodating learning environment for the flight students. The largest and most infamous member of the family is the Boeing 747, the “Jumbo Jet”.” This is an aircraft that has changed commercial airliners forever. With its sheer size it put itself in a class of it’s own. The 747 offer a lower seat per-mile cost and a more efficient way for transportation than any other aircraft. It can move more people and cargo farther and faster. “The 707 brought jet transportation to people. The 747 brought jet transportation to the everyday people” (Norris and Wagner, 26). 747s have become the backbone of many airlines, in that they handle more people and cargo than any of their other planes. 747 not only provides a highly efficient people mover it has also been a great improvement of cargo transportation. Some modified 747 have a large upward swinging door at the nose of the plane. This door allows for great ease in loading large cargo items. Boeing also offered the option of a side panel door for loading. This was mainly used in the “Combi” 747; they were 747 they would transport people and cargo at the same time. The 747 also serve several roles in the Military. Most notably is in the application of presidential transportation as Air Force One. The 747 replace the 707 as Air Force One with great pride. With the increase in room and luxury the President hasn’t had a better ride since. The 747 also found itself the solution to a rather large problem that is of the transportation of the Space Shuttle. There really is no other way to transport the large orbiter than strapping it onto the top of a 747. NASA bought an ex-American Airlines 747 in 1977 and has been using it ever since (Gilchrist, 61). By the late seventies the 727 and 737 were showing their age. Boeing was unable to sell newly modified versions of the two aircraft and they soon realized that a whole new aircraft was in need. The new aircraft did not come in the form of a single plane but in two completely different airplanes that would pick up the slack in the short to medium range jet planes. These planes would be the 757 and the 767. They would prove to be very qualified successors to the 727 and the 737 proving themselves in both the commercial and military world. In fact the 767 came out of production with great performance than what was original planned. “Getting it into service, getting it under our original cost estimates and one day early-I don’t know how you can improve on that. And that’s due to the great team at Boeing” (Bauer, 320). The short to medium range jet had been modernized with increases in performance of its capacity, speed, and fuel consumption. The Military had their eye on the 767. It was as wide-bodied aircraft similar in dimensions to the 737 and the wider body is what the Military saw most appealing. One of the primary functions the 767 serves is in the AWACS (Airborne Warning and Control System) program. It is a 767 modified with a large circular disc on the top. The disc is composed of radars and antennas, it purpose is to target and track targets from a long range, this information is then communicated to fighters on stand by. The body of the plane has a crew and a large amount of computer equipment used in the process of determining targets. Boeing has some more plans for the 767, Boeing see it a very capable candidate for a tanker/transport variant that would provide in flight refueling and transportation duties (www.Boeing.com). The last in the family is the 777, which were introduced, in the early nineties. It is a complete new generation of aircraft with the complete integration of computers. The 777 has two main variants presently they are the 777-200 and the 777-300. Their main difference is length and capacity, the 300 is about 33 feet longer and can hold about 70 more passengers than the 200. Both will work to satisfy the different needs of an airline. A newer version is in the works too. It is the 777-400 planned to have even greater capacity that what is now present. The 777 should gradually replace the 747 as the large capacity long-range jet (www.Boeing.com). The 777 are the plane of the future and will have many service roles in the commercial world. The line of the Boeing 700 aircraft is undeniably a very versatile line of aircraft. From the beginning they have dominated in commercial jet sales and for good reason. Boeing has always made their aircraft with the utmost quality and attention to detail. Boeing will test and test again until they get it right and that shows in their products. The 700’s serve any commercial and military need placed on them. They have made long distant travel a comfort and a pleasure to many. It is hard to imagine what is would be like without Boeing. It is very safe to say that commercial airline travel would simply not be at the same caliber we find it today.
ROMAN-ARCHITECTURE.
Architecture of the ancient Roman Empire is considered one of the most impressive of all time. The city of Rome once was home to more than one million residents in the early centuries AD1. The Romans had a fine selection of building monuments in the city of Rome including the forums for civic services, temples of worship, and amphitheaters for recreation and play. The Romans made great use and pioneered great architecture mechanisms including arches, columns, and even mechanical elements in pulleys and early elevators. However, when one tends to think of great buildings, one building stands out in Rome. This building is the Flavian Amphitheatre, or better known as the Colosseum. When discussing such a great monument such as the Colosseum, it is very important to realize the time, place, and culture in wish it stood to fully understand both its form and function. In the beginnings, Rome was both influenced by the Etruscans of the North and Greeks of Italy and South but had its basic roots from a long time of Samnite domination2. The Etruscans were that of an interesting type as described by Peter Quennell: The Etruscans...combined a passionate devotion to the ordinary pleasures of life with a haunting fear of death. They were cruel, too, and deeply superstitious...their victims were ordered to fight among themselves until the last had fallen. The Etruscans would have a strong impression in Roman lifestyles and philosophies. For example, the purple robe worn by leaders would be later adopted by the Romans. They also were the influence which brought gladiatorial battles of sacrifice into the Roman culture. This was a time of blood thirsty humans who loved the site of battle. Even an early christian named Alypius proclaimed that he took away with him a mad passion which prodded him not only to return (to gladatior events) with those by whom he had first been forced in, but even ahead of them and dragging in others.3 This was a time of paganism, which meant sacrifice and death. Early christians were persecuted for their beliefs in the first few centuries. Clearly in Rome, the focus was not only on religion or the emporer, but we have a focus on leisure and activities. It is said that of a three-hundred and sixty-five day year that one-hundred and fifty days were celebrated as regular holidays, with over ninety days given up to games4. This type of lifestyle would dominate the cities and architecture of the Romans for some time to come. The people of Rome enjoyed theatres, battles, races, baths, comical events, and of course the game of death. There were many forums, temples, and many amphitheaters in the history of Rome, however only a few stand out even today. The Colosseum is the greatest standing building of Rome, and one of the most recognized worldwide architectural achievements to this day. The amphitheater is a type of architecture that was without Greek precedents. This makes sense since its primary purpose was to hold gladitiator fights and brutal shows which were banned in Athens at the time. Such events held in Roman amphitheaters were horseracing, gymnastics, mock cavalry battles, footraces, prizefighting, wrestling, fights between animals, between men, animals and men, and even naumachiae, or mock sea battles5. One of the first amphitheaters was the Pompeian amphitheater of Pompeii of 30 BC. Like the Colosseum, it was oval in plan. It was supported on great masses of solid earth pierced by a broad corridor at each end. Stone seats were added at one time but most spectators sat on the earth or wooden chairs. Although this amphitheater was a great innovation, it would be eclipsed by the Flavian Amphitheater, better known as the Colosseum. The great building although fitting and plain in design to its surroundings of Rome still stood out due to its sheer monstrosity and oval shape. Although the site viewed today is still a marvel, back in the days of its prime it was a spectacular site that would be difficult to apprehend with only words[TVK1]. [TVK2] The city which held the great structure was full of great examples of the use of arches, columns from every order, and of course sheer size. When traveling the city to the Colosseum the whole area had been paved and railed off. The approach was taken by cobbled slabs of lava, and then one entered an area paved with travertine more than five thousand feet wide and surrounded by huge boundary stones6. To a spectator at the time the Colosseum from the outside is described by the romantic poet Johann Wolggang von Goethe: When one looks at it all else seems little; the edifice is so vast, that one cannot hold the image of it in one's soul- in memory we think it smaller, and then return to it again to find it every time greater than before. As one looked at it from the city, there were many sights to behold, but the Colosseum stood out 19 centuries ago, and still does to this date. At the end of the Emperor Nero and the triumph of the Flavians every effort was made to forget the times of the Julio-Claudians (of which Julius Caesar's family) and move to newer times. The focus of arhictecture and buildings shifted from the emperor's creations to the public's buildings. The next prominent emperor was Vespasian. His first contribution to the public was an enormous forum with a temple of Peace in it.7 His greatest feat was the beginning of the construction of the Colosseum for games purposes around 72 AD. Titus succeeded the ever-joking Vespasian and completed his fathers dream around 79-80 AD. The dedication of the Colesseum was a lavish gladiator show that lasted for exactly one-hundred days in which over nine thousand animals were killed.8 A typical day at the Colesseum show usually started with a bloodless comic relief battle, often times with dwarfs, women, or cripples battling with wooden objects. A tuba would sound and the main events would begin. The gladiator fights were the most popular and prominent fights. These featured two highly trained men battling for courage, strength, and dignity. They would often rather take a blow and stand strong than wimper and run in defense. The people were in love with gladiators much like today's sport heroes. It is written that famous women would even leave their husbands for famous gladiators which were known to be very scarred and ugly by Roman standards.9 The gladiator fight was a ruthless blood-ridden spectacle which usually ended in death by the loser who begged for mercy and was chosen to die by the present emperor or crowd cheers of 45,000 hysterical fans. Even more appalling than the gladiator fights may have been the famous wild beast hunts. Some beast slayers fought lions, tigers, bears, and bulls which brought many animals to near extinction in the surrounding areas. However, even worse than the wild beast hunts was the killings of rather harmless animals such as ostriches, giraffes, deer, elephants, and even hippopotami all for the delight of the crowd. The Colosseum utilized machinery to even raise animals to the battle floor from beneath where the catacombs and passages lay. The Colosseum would be decorated with trees, hillocks, and other elements to simulate natural surroundings.10 One such fighter was the deranged emperor Commodus who had such a passion for unequal combat he visited the Colesseum more than a thousand times slaughtering at one time one hundred bears, killed ostriches, and even innocent fans if they laughed. It was clear to many that he was insane, and he was assinated by a famous athlete. Perhaps the most interesting of all events held was the mock sea battles. The Romans were famous for running water in their architecture, and this allowed them to flood the battle field and hold mock sea battles. Of course with all of this bloodshed, it was very controversal starting in the third to fourth centuries. The paganism of Rome had rooted from the Etruscans and was evident at the Colosseum. Christianity was also spreading around, but most Roman emperors would not accept Christians. As Peter Quennell puts it in his writings: The Christians, like the Jews with whom they were sometimes confused, were reported to worship an ass-headed god and were also said to practice incest, cannabalism, and other equally atrocious crimes. The Christians were inflamed, said their pagan adversaries, by an odium generis humani, a downright loathing of the human race, and as public enemies they at once received the blame for any calamity that might befall the empire. As one can tell from the above descriptions, many Christians were persecuted by the Roman emperors. If one did not choose to pledge their loyalty to the emperor by a sacrificial ceremony and to deny their own religion, they were executed. Some executions were in the Colosseum where the Christians were defenseless and killed by wild lions. Others were burned alive at the stake, shot with arrows, or stoned. The major changes of attitude towards Christians came with the Constantine the Great. He last exchanged the purple pagan robes for the white robes of Christian faith. However paganism continued until 392, when Theodosius I and Valentinian II prohibited any form of pagan sacrifice. However it was Honorius who abolished the games of the Colosseum, but criminals were still persecuted there for more than one-hundred years. 11 After that it was generally used up until the end of the sixth century for concerts, sermons, and bullfights. The structure itself of the Colloseum can be summarized as the symbol of Rome and it's respect across the world: mammouth. The overall plan is a huge elliptical structure measuring about 617 by 512 feet: the measure of the actual arena are 280 by 180.12 Estimates of capacity range from 45,000 to 50,000 spectators. It is believed to be made of two half circles in order for the accoustics to be amplified. The building incorporates many Roman influences with some Greek past, and some of its own technologies that are some of the most wonderous creations of man. The most important of aspects of this monument are in its arches, columns, vaulting, technological advances, and in its mere magnitude. The arches and barrel-vaulting are typical of Roman buildings and architecture, but should be given more thought. The Colosseum is built as four stories which was unprecedented in its day. The arch was a great Roman architecture innovation which allowed for great amounts of weight to be carried over long spans. The arches allowed for the great load bearing required to support a monument such as the Colosseum. Arches are built by a series of stones or bricks placed side by side in such a manner that they can support one another and weight while bridging a wide space. A barrel-vault is a half cylinder created from the continuation of the arches. The outermost walls of the structure sat on eighty piers connected by stone barrel-vaults. The four stories symbolized the basic Roman orders: Tuscan (variation of Doric), Ionic, Corinthian, and tall Corinthian pilasters on the fourth story. The outer walls on the bottom were faced in Doric columns faced with travertine with an Ionic entablature which ran all around the building. Inside the building the columns on the bottom were Doric and contained two parallel corridors barrel-vaulted in concrete which surrounded the building. The second level and third level were similar to the first, except the outer walls were separated by lined up columns of the Ionic order, and the third level outer wall was Corinthian. The fourth level is different than the first three and this had much to do with the covering of the Colosseum which will be discussed later. It consisted of a flatter surface with Corinthian pilistars and in alternating sections contained windows. The roof of the upper corridor seems to have formed a flat wooden platform below the top of the outer wall. The sailors who operated the roof used this platform. The seating was sat at a 37 degree angle13, and had a stairway system to enter the three levels as shown by the cutouts of the four levels below. The building was not made all of travistine, but was made of lighter and porous pumice stone and also of brick and concrete. The seating on the bottom was covered in marble and brass, and higher levels were made of wood. Some of the technology employed at the time of this building is very similar to today's buildings of similar uses for games. For instance there were 76 entrance gates of the 80 piers. The latter four were used for emperors and gladiators (one of which was used to drag the bodies to an unmarked grave). The entrance gates were numbered and corresponded to numbers stamped on the fan's tickets much like todays sporting events. With 80 gates one could easily maneuver to their correct gate. In the ground floor contained an intricate labyrinth of cells which housed the gladiators, animals, and workers. There were splendid uses of machinery in which to lift the gladiator or animal to the surface of the battle arena. But the most amazing construction at the Colosseum had nothing to do with the show. It was designed purely for the benefit of the audience, to keep them calm and content as the violent spectacle unfolded below. It was a roof. The roof of the Colleseum was one that was retractable and much like a sailor. So much in fact, sailors who lived in a nearby town managed the velarium, or colored awning. This was a remarkable feat considering that most stadiums now days are still not fully enclosed (such as the Cowboy's stadium). The use of the corbels on the uppermost deck and the use of a pulley system brought about this feat of ingenious. Some archeologists thought that the roof was non-existent or was a web of ropes, but it is now believed to be made from masts and pulleys. The masts would hold horizontal masts on which to pull the awning over. It is believed that it did not cover the whole structure, but at least the most important seatings of the emperor for the whole day.14 Hebrew prisoners and slaves of the time employed the building of the Colesseum. All the details of the actual construction are unknown, but it is based upon a barrel-vaulted scheme that circles around. The builders used tavertine blocks to construct a framework of piers, arches, and linked walls and vaults. The cement posts go deep into the ground to support the great weight. The lower level vaults were constructed of tufa or pumice. On the upper floors the walls were built with brick and concrete (utilizing volcanic sand to dry). Travertine was used to surround the outside and was held in place by iron clamps. 15 The experience of being outside the Colosseum was plain except for the added statues. The outside of the building was paved with boundaries and roads. One could make out the hundreds of semicircles and arches. The arches increased upwards from Truscan, Doric, and Corinthian columns to the Corinthian Pillars and wall of the fourth deck. The outside was a brilliant travertine that must have been a spectacular sight. Next to the building one would feel he is nothing but a little gnat compared to the great building. To get inside one must enter their gate, and proceed up the stairway to the designated level much like a modern stadium. Since there were 80 entrances, many people could occupy the great Amphitheater. Inside the Coloseum the arena floor was wooden and covered with sand to soak the blood. There was a great podium made of marble on the sidelines housed the dignitaries. Above that were marble seats for distinguished private citizens. The second held the middle class, the third held slaves and foreigners, and the fourth levels were for women and the poor who sat on wooden seats.16 The great velarium was multicolored and must have been a specticle on the inside of the Colosseum when raised. This would also shadow and protect the fans from nature. The arches allowed for great ventilation, stability, and passageways to keep the crowd comfortable all day. On a whole the Colosseum is symbolized by its size which represents the greatness of Rome. The name may be attributed to its size, or some believe to the colossal statue of Nero nicknamed the crowned colossus that was nearby. With all of the circular motifs used by the arches, and of the building itself, some believe it symbolizes the sun. This also makes sense considering part of the Colosseum was built from the Golden House of Nero, also known as the solar statue, or sun statue. Many symbols used in the Colosseum were of Pagan descendent. This included the sacrifices, purple robes, battle-axes, and hammers of the Etruscan Pagans. The cross was erected to commemorate the early Christians who are believed to have died here (although there is no evidence to support this belief). The great arch beside the Coliseum was erected in the third century in honor of Constantine, although much of its decoration was pilfered from monuments to other emperors. Since one of the symbols was of the sun, the arches created natural and splendid light and shadows as shown in the picture. Much poetry has been written of the light, shadows, and even smoke from the arches of the Colosseum. When it was not noon the light would create long shadows and yet have bright instances which accentuate the arches and columns in the bright light. It shows an alternating natural pattern of shadows. One of the first natural changes of the Colosseum came in 320 when lightning struck and damaged the building. In 422 it was damaged by an earthquake. However Theodosius II and Valentitian III repaired it only to be again damaged by an earthquake in 508. After the sixth century the city of Rome and the Coleseum went downhill because of some devastating disasters. Towards the end of the sixth century grass was starting to grow rampant at the Colosseum, .
Architecture of the ancient Roman Empire is considered one of the most impressive of all time. The city of Rome once was home to more than one million residents in the early centuries AD1. The Romans had a fine selection of building monuments in the city of Rome including the forums for civic services, temples of worship, and amphitheaters for recreation and play. The Romans made great use and pioneered great architecture mechanisms including arches, columns, and even mechanical elements in pulleys and early elevators. However, when one tends to think of great buildings, one building stands out in Rome. This building is the Flavian Amphitheatre, or better known as the Colosseum. When discussing such a great monument such as the Colosseum, it is very important to realize the time, place, and culture in wish it stood to fully understand both its form and function. In the beginnings, Rome was both influenced by the Etruscans of the North and Greeks of Italy and South but had its basic roots from a long time of Samnite domination2. The Etruscans were that of an interesting type as described by Peter Quennell: The Etruscans...combined a passionate devotion to the ordinary pleasures of life with a haunting fear of death. They were cruel, too, and deeply superstitious...their victims were ordered to fight among themselves until the last had fallen. The Etruscans would have a strong impression in Roman lifestyles and philosophies. For example, the purple robe worn by leaders would be later adopted by the Romans. They also were the influence which brought gladiatorial battles of sacrifice into the Roman culture. This was a time of blood thirsty humans who loved the site of battle. Even an early christian named Alypius proclaimed that he took away with him a mad passion which prodded him not only to return (to gladatior events) with those by whom he had first been forced in, but even ahead of them and dragging in others.3 This was a time of paganism, which meant sacrifice and death. Early christians were persecuted for their beliefs in the first few centuries. Clearly in Rome, the focus was not only on religion or the emporer, but we have a focus on leisure and activities. It is said that of a three-hundred and sixty-five day year that one-hundred and fifty days were celebrated as regular holidays, with over ninety days given up to games4. This type of lifestyle would dominate the cities and architecture of the Romans for some time to come. The people of Rome enjoyed theatres, battles, races, baths, comical events, and of course the game of death. There were many forums, temples, and many amphitheaters in the history of Rome, however only a few stand out even today. The Colosseum is the greatest standing building of Rome, and one of the most recognized worldwide architectural achievements to this day. The amphitheater is a type of architecture that was without Greek precedents. This makes sense since its primary purpose was to hold gladitiator fights and brutal shows which were banned in Athens at the time. Such events held in Roman amphitheaters were horseracing, gymnastics, mock cavalry battles, footraces, prizefighting, wrestling, fights between animals, between men, animals and men, and even naumachiae, or mock sea battles5. One of the first amphitheaters was the Pompeian amphitheater of Pompeii of 30 BC. Like the Colosseum, it was oval in plan. It was supported on great masses of solid earth pierced by a broad corridor at each end. Stone seats were added at one time but most spectators sat on the earth or wooden chairs. Although this amphitheater was a great innovation, it would be eclipsed by the Flavian Amphitheater, better known as the Colosseum. The great building although fitting and plain in design to its surroundings of Rome still stood out due to its sheer monstrosity and oval shape. Although the site viewed today is still a marvel, back in the days of its prime it was a spectacular site that would be difficult to apprehend with only words[TVK1]. [TVK2] The city which held the great structure was full of great examples of the use of arches, columns from every order, and of course sheer size. When traveling the city to the Colosseum the whole area had been paved and railed off. The approach was taken by cobbled slabs of lava, and then one entered an area paved with travertine more than five thousand feet wide and surrounded by huge boundary stones6. To a spectator at the time the Colosseum from the outside is described by the romantic poet Johann Wolggang von Goethe: When one looks at it all else seems little; the edifice is so vast, that one cannot hold the image of it in one's soul- in memory we think it smaller, and then return to it again to find it every time greater than before. As one looked at it from the city, there were many sights to behold, but the Colosseum stood out 19 centuries ago, and still does to this date. At the end of the Emperor Nero and the triumph of the Flavians every effort was made to forget the times of the Julio-Claudians (of which Julius Caesar's family) and move to newer times. The focus of arhictecture and buildings shifted from the emperor's creations to the public's buildings. The next prominent emperor was Vespasian. His first contribution to the public was an enormous forum with a temple of Peace in it.7 His greatest feat was the beginning of the construction of the Colosseum for games purposes around 72 AD. Titus succeeded the ever-joking Vespasian and completed his fathers dream around 79-80 AD. The dedication of the Colesseum was a lavish gladiator show that lasted for exactly one-hundred days in which over nine thousand animals were killed.8 A typical day at the Colesseum show usually started with a bloodless comic relief battle, often times with dwarfs, women, or cripples battling with wooden objects. A tuba would sound and the main events would begin. The gladiator fights were the most popular and prominent fights. These featured two highly trained men battling for courage, strength, and dignity. They would often rather take a blow and stand strong than wimper and run in defense. The people were in love with gladiators much like today's sport heroes. It is written that famous women would even leave their husbands for famous gladiators which were known to be very scarred and ugly by Roman standards.9 The gladiator fight was a ruthless blood-ridden spectacle which usually ended in death by the loser who begged for mercy and was chosen to die by the present emperor or crowd cheers of 45,000 hysterical fans. Even more appalling than the gladiator fights may have been the famous wild beast hunts. Some beast slayers fought lions, tigers, bears, and bulls which brought many animals to near extinction in the surrounding areas. However, even worse than the wild beast hunts was the killings of rather harmless animals such as ostriches, giraffes, deer, elephants, and even hippopotami all for the delight of the crowd. The Colosseum utilized machinery to even raise animals to the battle floor from beneath where the catacombs and passages lay. The Colosseum would be decorated with trees, hillocks, and other elements to simulate natural surroundings.10 One such fighter was the deranged emperor Commodus who had such a passion for unequal combat he visited the Colesseum more than a thousand times slaughtering at one time one hundred bears, killed ostriches, and even innocent fans if they laughed. It was clear to many that he was insane, and he was assinated by a famous athlete. Perhaps the most interesting of all events held was the mock sea battles. The Romans were famous for running water in their architecture, and this allowed them to flood the battle field and hold mock sea battles. Of course with all of this bloodshed, it was very controversal starting in the third to fourth centuries. The paganism of Rome had rooted from the Etruscans and was evident at the Colosseum. Christianity was also spreading around, but most Roman emperors would not accept Christians. As Peter Quennell puts it in his writings: The Christians, like the Jews with whom they were sometimes confused, were reported to worship an ass-headed god and were also said to practice incest, cannabalism, and other equally atrocious crimes. The Christians were inflamed, said their pagan adversaries, by an odium generis humani, a downright loathing of the human race, and as public enemies they at once received the blame for any calamity that might befall the empire. As one can tell from the above descriptions, many Christians were persecuted by the Roman emperors. If one did not choose to pledge their loyalty to the emperor by a sacrificial ceremony and to deny their own religion, they were executed. Some executions were in the Colosseum where the Christians were defenseless and killed by wild lions. Others were burned alive at the stake, shot with arrows, or stoned. The major changes of attitude towards Christians came with the Constantine the Great. He last exchanged the purple pagan robes for the white robes of Christian faith. However paganism continued until 392, when Theodosius I and Valentinian II prohibited any form of pagan sacrifice. However it was Honorius who abolished the games of the Colosseum, but criminals were still persecuted there for more than one-hundred years. 11 After that it was generally used up until the end of the sixth century for concerts, sermons, and bullfights. The structure itself of the Colloseum can be summarized as the symbol of Rome and it's respect across the world: mammouth. The overall plan is a huge elliptical structure measuring about 617 by 512 feet: the measure of the actual arena are 280 by 180.12 Estimates of capacity range from 45,000 to 50,000 spectators. It is believed to be made of two half circles in order for the accoustics to be amplified. The building incorporates many Roman influences with some Greek past, and some of its own technologies that are some of the most wonderous creations of man. The most important of aspects of this monument are in its arches, columns, vaulting, technological advances, and in its mere magnitude. The arches and barrel-vaulting are typical of Roman buildings and architecture, but should be given more thought. The Colosseum is built as four stories which was unprecedented in its day. The arch was a great Roman architecture innovation which allowed for great amounts of weight to be carried over long spans. The arches allowed for the great load bearing required to support a monument such as the Colosseum. Arches are built by a series of stones or bricks placed side by side in such a manner that they can support one another and weight while bridging a wide space. A barrel-vault is a half cylinder created from the continuation of the arches. The outermost walls of the structure sat on eighty piers connected by stone barrel-vaults. The four stories symbolized the basic Roman orders: Tuscan (variation of Doric), Ionic, Corinthian, and tall Corinthian pilasters on the fourth story. The outer walls on the bottom were faced in Doric columns faced with travertine with an Ionic entablature which ran all around the building. Inside the building the columns on the bottom were Doric and contained two parallel corridors barrel-vaulted in concrete which surrounded the building. The second level and third level were similar to the first, except the outer walls were separated by lined up columns of the Ionic order, and the third level outer wall was Corinthian. The fourth level is different than the first three and this had much to do with the covering of the Colosseum which will be discussed later. It consisted of a flatter surface with Corinthian pilistars and in alternating sections contained windows. The roof of the upper corridor seems to have formed a flat wooden platform below the top of the outer wall. The sailors who operated the roof used this platform. The seating was sat at a 37 degree angle13, and had a stairway system to enter the three levels as shown by the cutouts of the four levels below. The building was not made all of travistine, but was made of lighter and porous pumice stone and also of brick and concrete. The seating on the bottom was covered in marble and brass, and higher levels were made of wood. Some of the technology employed at the time of this building is very similar to today's buildings of similar uses for games. For instance there were 76 entrance gates of the 80 piers. The latter four were used for emperors and gladiators (one of which was used to drag the bodies to an unmarked grave). The entrance gates were numbered and corresponded to numbers stamped on the fan's tickets much like todays sporting events. With 80 gates one could easily maneuver to their correct gate. In the ground floor contained an intricate labyrinth of cells which housed the gladiators, animals, and workers. There were splendid uses of machinery in which to lift the gladiator or animal to the surface of the battle arena. But the most amazing construction at the Colosseum had nothing to do with the show. It was designed purely for the benefit of the audience, to keep them calm and content as the violent spectacle unfolded below. It was a roof. The roof of the Colleseum was one that was retractable and much like a sailor. So much in fact, sailors who lived in a nearby town managed the velarium, or colored awning. This was a remarkable feat considering that most stadiums now days are still not fully enclosed (such as the Cowboy's stadium). The use of the corbels on the uppermost deck and the use of a pulley system brought about this feat of ingenious. Some archeologists thought that the roof was non-existent or was a web of ropes, but it is now believed to be made from masts and pulleys. The masts would hold horizontal masts on which to pull the awning over. It is believed that it did not cover the whole structure, but at least the most important seatings of the emperor for the whole day.14 Hebrew prisoners and slaves of the time employed the building of the Colesseum. All the details of the actual construction are unknown, but it is based upon a barrel-vaulted scheme that circles around. The builders used tavertine blocks to construct a framework of piers, arches, and linked walls and vaults. The cement posts go deep into the ground to support the great weight. The lower level vaults were constructed of tufa or pumice. On the upper floors the walls were built with brick and concrete (utilizing volcanic sand to dry). Travertine was used to surround the outside and was held in place by iron clamps. 15 The experience of being outside the Colosseum was plain except for the added statues. The outside of the building was paved with boundaries and roads. One could make out the hundreds of semicircles and arches. The arches increased upwards from Truscan, Doric, and Corinthian columns to the Corinthian Pillars and wall of the fourth deck. The outside was a brilliant travertine that must have been a spectacular sight. Next to the building one would feel he is nothing but a little gnat compared to the great building. To get inside one must enter their gate, and proceed up the stairway to the designated level much like a modern stadium. Since there were 80 entrances, many people could occupy the great Amphitheater. Inside the Coloseum the arena floor was wooden and covered with sand to soak the blood. There was a great podium made of marble on the sidelines housed the dignitaries. Above that were marble seats for distinguished private citizens. The second held the middle class, the third held slaves and foreigners, and the fourth levels were for women and the poor who sat on wooden seats.16 The great velarium was multicolored and must have been a specticle on the inside of the Colosseum when raised. This would also shadow and protect the fans from nature. The arches allowed for great ventilation, stability, and passageways to keep the crowd comfortable all day. On a whole the Colosseum is symbolized by its size which represents the greatness of Rome. The name may be attributed to its size, or some believe to the colossal statue of Nero nicknamed the crowned colossus that was nearby. With all of the circular motifs used by the arches, and of the building itself, some believe it symbolizes the sun. This also makes sense considering part of the Colosseum was built from the Golden House of Nero, also known as the solar statue, or sun statue. Many symbols used in the Colosseum were of Pagan descendent. This included the sacrifices, purple robes, battle-axes, and hammers of the Etruscan Pagans. The cross was erected to commemorate the early Christians who are believed to have died here (although there is no evidence to support this belief). The great arch beside the Coliseum was erected in the third century in honor of Constantine, although much of its decoration was pilfered from monuments to other emperors. Since one of the symbols was of the sun, the arches created natural and splendid light and shadows as shown in the picture. Much poetry has been written of the light, shadows, and even smoke from the arches of the Colosseum. When it was not noon the light would create long shadows and yet have bright instances which accentuate the arches and columns in the bright light. It shows an alternating natural pattern of shadows. One of the first natural changes of the Colosseum came in 320 when lightning struck and damaged the building. In 422 it was damaged by an earthquake. However Theodosius II and Valentitian III repaired it only to be again damaged by an earthquake in 508. After the sixth century the city of Rome and the Coleseum went downhill because of some devastating disasters. Towards the end of the sixth century grass was starting to grow rampant at the Colosseum, .
LEADERSHIP-QUALITIES.
The most meaningful and challenging experiences in my life have been through sports and the 4-H club. They have instilled the values of perseverance, confidence, and teamwork within me. I feel that my peers and others could learn valuable life lessons through participating in these organizations. They are not just clubs, but a guiding light for life. For example in sports I have had the opportunity to play on both losing and winning teams. This has given me a different perspective of looking at things. I now realize that even if you fail or lose that is no reason to give up, you still have to get right back up. Just realize your mistakes and errors. Then come back the next time, mentally and physically, ready to meet the challenge. To often in life youth and adults alike fail at something and automatically think that they cannot do it, and give up. Instead of just pushing themselves to run another lap, lift another set, study for another hour, or learn another theorem. Imagine a world if the early American settlers had given in to the British, if the North had given in to the South after the first loss of the civil war, or if Michael Jordan had given up after being cut from the team in high school. People just need to learn to have perseverance and believe in themselves. 4-H has been a series of stepping stones for me. When I first started out at age four I was shy and afraid to do things that I had not done before, but now I have blossomed into a confident and outgoing young man. I no longer fear getting up in front of large groups and speaking because of the experiences I've had in public speaking events. In addition, 4-H has given me the chance to develop myself as a leader. Over the years I have held various leadership positions on the club, county, and district levels. Also, 4-H has given me the chance to go into the community and help people by leading youth in workshops, assisting the handicap and elderly, and also learn from what others have to teach. In both of these organizations I learned the need for teamwork. For example last year my football team went 0-11 and the main reason because of that was we were not a team. Everyone had there own agendas and goals that they wanted to accomplish. In addition, if we were down everyone would try to put the blame on someone else instead of trying to lift one another up. It took us a while, but we finally learned that we must ban together as one. This year we are playing as a team and winning games.To often in life people tend to act like this, pulling someone down to make themselves look good for their own personal gratification. People could learn from this mistake that my team made last year and start helping one another. So fellow students I say to you, when you are in a jam and breaking into a cold sweat and your first desire is to give up or quit, rethink the problem. Then be up and about the task at hand. When you try and reach out to give others a helping hand you not only help them, but you will be giving yourself a boost too.
The most meaningful and challenging experiences in my life have been through sports and the 4-H club. They have instilled the values of perseverance, confidence, and teamwork within me. I feel that my peers and others could learn valuable life lessons through participating in these organizations. They are not just clubs, but a guiding light for life. For example in sports I have had the opportunity to play on both losing and winning teams. This has given me a different perspective of looking at things. I now realize that even if you fail or lose that is no reason to give up, you still have to get right back up. Just realize your mistakes and errors. Then come back the next time, mentally and physically, ready to meet the challenge. To often in life youth and adults alike fail at something and automatically think that they cannot do it, and give up. Instead of just pushing themselves to run another lap, lift another set, study for another hour, or learn another theorem. Imagine a world if the early American settlers had given in to the British, if the North had given in to the South after the first loss of the civil war, or if Michael Jordan had given up after being cut from the team in high school. People just need to learn to have perseverance and believe in themselves. 4-H has been a series of stepping stones for me. When I first started out at age four I was shy and afraid to do things that I had not done before, but now I have blossomed into a confident and outgoing young man. I no longer fear getting up in front of large groups and speaking because of the experiences I've had in public speaking events. In addition, 4-H has given me the chance to develop myself as a leader. Over the years I have held various leadership positions on the club, county, and district levels. Also, 4-H has given me the chance to go into the community and help people by leading youth in workshops, assisting the handicap and elderly, and also learn from what others have to teach. In both of these organizations I learned the need for teamwork. For example last year my football team went 0-11 and the main reason because of that was we were not a team. Everyone had there own agendas and goals that they wanted to accomplish. In addition, if we were down everyone would try to put the blame on someone else instead of trying to lift one another up. It took us a while, but we finally learned that we must ban together as one. This year we are playing as a team and winning games.To often in life people tend to act like this, pulling someone down to make themselves look good for their own personal gratification. People could learn from this mistake that my team made last year and start helping one another. So fellow students I say to you, when you are in a jam and breaking into a cold sweat and your first desire is to give up or quit, rethink the problem. Then be up and about the task at hand. When you try and reach out to give others a helping hand you not only help them, but you will be giving yourself a boost too.
UNIVERSE.
UNIVERSE.
Not so much a theory of the universe as a simple picture of the planet we call home, the flat-earth model proposed that Earth’s surface was level. Although everyday experience makes this seem a reasonable assumption, direct observation of nature shows the real world isn’t that simple. For instance, when a sailing ship heads into port, the first part that becomes visible is the crow’s-nest, followed by the sails, and then the bow of the ship. If the Earth were flat, the entire ship would come into view at once as soon as it came close enough to shore. The Greek philosopher Aristotle provided two more reasons why the Earth was round. First, he noted that Earth’s shadow always took a circular bite out of the moon during a lunar eclipse, which would only be possible with a spherical Earth. (If the Earth were a disk, its shadow would appear as an elongated ellipse at least during part of the eclipse.) Second, Aristotle knew that people who journeyed north saw the North Star ascend higher in the sky, while those heading south saw the North Star sink. On a flat Earth, the positions of the stars wouldn’t vary with a person’s location. Despite these arguments, which won over most of the world’s educated citizens, belief in a flat Earth persisted among many others. Not until explorers first circumnavigated the globe in the 16th century did those beliefs begin to die out. Ptolemy, the last of the great Greek astronomers of antiquity, developed an effective system for mapping the universe. Basing much of his theory on the work of his predecessor, Hipparchus, Ptolemy designed a geocentric, or Earth-centered, model that held sway for 1400 years. That Ptolemy could place Earth at the center of the universe and still predict the planets’ positions adequately was a testament to his ability as a mathematician. That he could do so while maintaining the Greek belief that the heavens were perfect—and thus that each planet moved along a circular orbit at a constant speed—is nothing short of remarkable. Copernicus made a great leap forward by realizing that the motions of the planets could be explained by placing the Sun at the center of the universe instead of Earth. In his view, Earth was simply one of many planets orbiting the Sun, and the daily motion of the stars and planets were just a reflection of Earth spinning on its axis. Although the Greek astronomer Aristarchus developed the same hypothesis more than 1500 years earlier, Copernicus was the first person to argue its merits in modern times. Despite the basic truth of his model, Copernicus did not prove that Earth moved around the Sun. That was left for later astronomers. The first direct evidence came from Newton’s laws of motion, which say that when objects orbit one another, the lighter object moves more than the heavier one. Because the Sun has about 330,000 times more mass than Earth, our planet must be doing almost all the moving. A direct observation of Earth’s motion came in 1838 when the German astronomer Friedrich Bessel measured the tiny displacement, or parallax, of a nearby star relative to the more distant stars. This minuscule displacement reflects our planet’s changing vantage point as we orbit the Sun during the year. How did the universe really begin? Most astronomers would say that the debate is now over: The universe started with a giant explosion, called the Big Bang. The big-bang theory got its start with the observations by Edwin Hubble that showed the universe to be expanding. If you imagine the history of the universe as a long-running movie, what happens when you show the movie in reverse? All the galaxies would move closer and closer together, until eventually they all get crushed together into one massive yet tiny sphere. It was just this sort of thinking that led to the concept of the Big Bang. The Big Bang marks the instant at which the universe began, when space and time came into existence and all the matter in the cosmos started to expand. Amazingly, theorists have deduced the history of the universe dating back to just 1043 second (10 million trillion trillion trillionths of a second) after the Big Bang. Before this time all four fundamental forces—gravity, electromagnetism, and the strong and weak nuclear forces—were unified, but physicists have yet to develop a workable theory that can describe these conditions. During the first second or so of the universe, protons, neutrons, and electrons—the building blocks of atoms—formed when photons collided and converted their energy into mass, and the four forces split into their separate identities. The temperature of the universe also cooled during this time, from about 1032 (100 million trillion trillion) degrees to 10 billion degrees. Approximately three minutes after the Big Bang, when the temperature fell to a cool one billion degrees, protons and neutrons combined to form the nuclei of a few heavier elements, most notably helium. The next major step didn’t take place until roughly 300,000 years after the Big Bang, when the universe had cooled to a not-quite comfortable 3000 degrees. At this temperature, electrons could combine with atomic nuclei to form neutral atoms. With no free electrons left to scatter photons of light, the universe became transparent to radiation. (It is this light that we see today as the cosmic background radiation.) Stars and galaxies began to form about one billion years following the Big Bang, and since then the universe has simply continued to grow larger and cooler, creating conditions conducive to life. Three excellent reasons exist for believing in the big-bang theory. First, and most obvious, the universe is expanding. Second, the theory predicts that 25 percent of the total mass of the universe should be the helium that formed during the first few minutes, an amount that agrees with observations. Finally, and most convincing, is the presence of the cosmic background radiation. The big-bang theory predicted this remnant radiation, which now glows at a temperature just 3 degrees above absolute zero, well before radio astronomers chanced upon it. Friedmann made two simple assumptions about the universe: that when viewed at large enough scales, it appears the same both in every direction and from every location. From these assumptions (called the cosmological principle) and Einstein’s equations, he developed the first model of a universe in motion. The Friedmann universe begins with a Big Bang and continues expanding for untold billions of years—that’s the stage we’re in now. But after a long enough period of time, the mutual gravitational attraction of all the matter slows the expansion to a stop. The universe then starts to fall in on itself, replaying the expansion in reverse. Eventually all the matter collapses back into a singularity, in what physicist John Wheeler likes to call the “Big Crunch.” Gravitational attraction is a fundamental property of matter that exists throughout the known universe. Physicists identify gravity as one of the four types of forces in the universe. The others are the strong and weak nuclear forces and the electromagnetic force. More than 300 years ago, the great English scientist Sir Isaac Newton published the important generalization that mathematically describes this universal force of gravity. Newton was the first to realize that gravity extends well beyond the boundaries of Earth. Newton's realization was based on the first of three laws he had formulated to describe the motion of objects. Part of Newton's first law, the Law of Inertia, states that objects in motion travel in a straight line at a constant velocity unless they are acted upon by a net force. According to this law, the planets in space should travel in straight lines. However, as early as the time of Aristotle, the planets were known to travel on curved paths. Newton reasoned that the circular motions of the planets are the result of a net force acting upon each of them. That force, he concluded, is the same force that causes an apple to fall to the ground--gravity. Newton's experimental research into the force of gravity resulted in his elegant mathematical statement that is known today as the Law of Universal Gravitation. According to Newton, every mass in the universe attracts every other mass. The attractive force between any two objects is directly proportional to the product of the two masses being measured and inversely proportional to the square of the distance separating them. If we let F represent this force, r the distance between the centers of the masses, and m1 and m2 the magnitude of the two masses, the relationship stated can be written symbolically as: is defined mathematically to mean is proportional to.) From this relationship, we can see that the greater the masses of the attracting objects, the greater the force of attraction between them. We can also see that the farther apart the objects are from each other, the less the attraction. It is important to note the inverse square relationship with respect to distance. In other words, if the distance between the objects is doubled, the attraction between them is diminished by a factor of four, and if the distance is tripled, the attraction is only one-ninth as much. Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation was later quantified by eighteenth-century English physicist Henry Cavendish who actually measured the gravitational force between two one-kilogram masses separated by a distance of one meter. This attraction was an extremely weak force, but its determination permitted the proportional relationship of Newton's law to be converted into an equation. This measurement yielded the universal gravitational constant or G.
Not so much a theory of the universe as a simple picture of the planet we call home, the flat-earth model proposed that Earth’s surface was level. Although everyday experience makes this seem a reasonable assumption, direct observation of nature shows the real world isn’t that simple. For instance, when a sailing ship heads into port, the first part that becomes visible is the crow’s-nest, followed by the sails, and then the bow of the ship. If the Earth were flat, the entire ship would come into view at once as soon as it came close enough to shore. The Greek philosopher Aristotle provided two more reasons why the Earth was round. First, he noted that Earth’s shadow always took a circular bite out of the moon during a lunar eclipse, which would only be possible with a spherical Earth. (If the Earth were a disk, its shadow would appear as an elongated ellipse at least during part of the eclipse.) Second, Aristotle knew that people who journeyed north saw the North Star ascend higher in the sky, while those heading south saw the North Star sink. On a flat Earth, the positions of the stars wouldn’t vary with a person’s location. Despite these arguments, which won over most of the world’s educated citizens, belief in a flat Earth persisted among many others. Not until explorers first circumnavigated the globe in the 16th century did those beliefs begin to die out. Ptolemy, the last of the great Greek astronomers of antiquity, developed an effective system for mapping the universe. Basing much of his theory on the work of his predecessor, Hipparchus, Ptolemy designed a geocentric, or Earth-centered, model that held sway for 1400 years. That Ptolemy could place Earth at the center of the universe and still predict the planets’ positions adequately was a testament to his ability as a mathematician. That he could do so while maintaining the Greek belief that the heavens were perfect—and thus that each planet moved along a circular orbit at a constant speed—is nothing short of remarkable. Copernicus made a great leap forward by realizing that the motions of the planets could be explained by placing the Sun at the center of the universe instead of Earth. In his view, Earth was simply one of many planets orbiting the Sun, and the daily motion of the stars and planets were just a reflection of Earth spinning on its axis. Although the Greek astronomer Aristarchus developed the same hypothesis more than 1500 years earlier, Copernicus was the first person to argue its merits in modern times. Despite the basic truth of his model, Copernicus did not prove that Earth moved around the Sun. That was left for later astronomers. The first direct evidence came from Newton’s laws of motion, which say that when objects orbit one another, the lighter object moves more than the heavier one. Because the Sun has about 330,000 times more mass than Earth, our planet must be doing almost all the moving. A direct observation of Earth’s motion came in 1838 when the German astronomer Friedrich Bessel measured the tiny displacement, or parallax, of a nearby star relative to the more distant stars. This minuscule displacement reflects our planet’s changing vantage point as we orbit the Sun during the year. How did the universe really begin? Most astronomers would say that the debate is now over: The universe started with a giant explosion, called the Big Bang. The big-bang theory got its start with the observations by Edwin Hubble that showed the universe to be expanding. If you imagine the history of the universe as a long-running movie, what happens when you show the movie in reverse? All the galaxies would move closer and closer together, until eventually they all get crushed together into one massive yet tiny sphere. It was just this sort of thinking that led to the concept of the Big Bang. The Big Bang marks the instant at which the universe began, when space and time came into existence and all the matter in the cosmos started to expand. Amazingly, theorists have deduced the history of the universe dating back to just 1043 second (10 million trillion trillion trillionths of a second) after the Big Bang. Before this time all four fundamental forces—gravity, electromagnetism, and the strong and weak nuclear forces—were unified, but physicists have yet to develop a workable theory that can describe these conditions. During the first second or so of the universe, protons, neutrons, and electrons—the building blocks of atoms—formed when photons collided and converted their energy into mass, and the four forces split into their separate identities. The temperature of the universe also cooled during this time, from about 1032 (100 million trillion trillion) degrees to 10 billion degrees. Approximately three minutes after the Big Bang, when the temperature fell to a cool one billion degrees, protons and neutrons combined to form the nuclei of a few heavier elements, most notably helium. The next major step didn’t take place until roughly 300,000 years after the Big Bang, when the universe had cooled to a not-quite comfortable 3000 degrees. At this temperature, electrons could combine with atomic nuclei to form neutral atoms. With no free electrons left to scatter photons of light, the universe became transparent to radiation. (It is this light that we see today as the cosmic background radiation.) Stars and galaxies began to form about one billion years following the Big Bang, and since then the universe has simply continued to grow larger and cooler, creating conditions conducive to life. Three excellent reasons exist for believing in the big-bang theory. First, and most obvious, the universe is expanding. Second, the theory predicts that 25 percent of the total mass of the universe should be the helium that formed during the first few minutes, an amount that agrees with observations. Finally, and most convincing, is the presence of the cosmic background radiation. The big-bang theory predicted this remnant radiation, which now glows at a temperature just 3 degrees above absolute zero, well before radio astronomers chanced upon it. Friedmann made two simple assumptions about the universe: that when viewed at large enough scales, it appears the same both in every direction and from every location. From these assumptions (called the cosmological principle) and Einstein’s equations, he developed the first model of a universe in motion. The Friedmann universe begins with a Big Bang and continues expanding for untold billions of years—that’s the stage we’re in now. But after a long enough period of time, the mutual gravitational attraction of all the matter slows the expansion to a stop. The universe then starts to fall in on itself, replaying the expansion in reverse. Eventually all the matter collapses back into a singularity, in what physicist John Wheeler likes to call the “Big Crunch.” Gravitational attraction is a fundamental property of matter that exists throughout the known universe. Physicists identify gravity as one of the four types of forces in the universe. The others are the strong and weak nuclear forces and the electromagnetic force. More than 300 years ago, the great English scientist Sir Isaac Newton published the important generalization that mathematically describes this universal force of gravity. Newton was the first to realize that gravity extends well beyond the boundaries of Earth. Newton's realization was based on the first of three laws he had formulated to describe the motion of objects. Part of Newton's first law, the Law of Inertia, states that objects in motion travel in a straight line at a constant velocity unless they are acted upon by a net force. According to this law, the planets in space should travel in straight lines. However, as early as the time of Aristotle, the planets were known to travel on curved paths. Newton reasoned that the circular motions of the planets are the result of a net force acting upon each of them. That force, he concluded, is the same force that causes an apple to fall to the ground--gravity. Newton's experimental research into the force of gravity resulted in his elegant mathematical statement that is known today as the Law of Universal Gravitation. According to Newton, every mass in the universe attracts every other mass. The attractive force between any two objects is directly proportional to the product of the two masses being measured and inversely proportional to the square of the distance separating them. If we let F represent this force, r the distance between the centers of the masses, and m1 and m2 the magnitude of the two masses, the relationship stated can be written symbolically as: is defined mathematically to mean is proportional to.) From this relationship, we can see that the greater the masses of the attracting objects, the greater the force of attraction between them. We can also see that the farther apart the objects are from each other, the less the attraction. It is important to note the inverse square relationship with respect to distance. In other words, if the distance between the objects is doubled, the attraction between them is diminished by a factor of four, and if the distance is tripled, the attraction is only one-ninth as much. Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation was later quantified by eighteenth-century English physicist Henry Cavendish who actually measured the gravitational force between two one-kilogram masses separated by a distance of one meter. This attraction was an extremely weak force, but its determination permitted the proportional relationship of Newton's law to be converted into an equation. This measurement yielded the universal gravitational constant or G.
BLACK-HOLES.
Understanding For ages people have been determined to explicate on everything. Our search for explanation rests only when there is a lack of questions. Our skies hold infinite quandaries, so the quest for answers will, as a result, also be infinite. Since its inception, Astronomy as a science speculated heavily upon discovery, and only came to concrete conclusions later with closer inspection. Aspects of the skies which at one time seemed like reasonable explanations are now laughed at as egotistical ventures. Time has shown that as better instrumentation was developed, more accurate understanding was attained. Now it seems, as we advance on scientific frontiers, the new quest of the heavens is to find and explain the phenomenom known as a black hole. The goal of this paper is to explain how the concept of a black hole came about, and give some insight on how black holes are formed and might be tracked down in our more technologically advanced future. Gaining an understanding of a black hole allows for a greater understanding of the concept of spacetime and maybe give us a grasp of both science fiction and science fact. Hopefully, all the clarification will come by the close of this essay. A black hole is probably one of the most misunderstood ideas among people outside of the astronomical and physical communities. Before an understanding of how it is formed can take place, a bit of an introduction to stars is necessary. This will shed light (no pun intended) on the black hole philosophy. A star is an enormous fire ball, fueled by a nuclear reaction at its core which produces massive amounts of heat and pressure. It is formed when two or more enormous gaseous clouds come together which forms the core, and as an aftereffect the conversion, due to that impact, of huge amounts of energy from the two clouds. The clouds come together with a great enough force, that a nuclear reaction ensues. This type of energy is created by fusion wherein the atoms are forced together to form a new one. In turn, heat in excess of millions of degrees farenheit are produced. This activity goes on for eons until the point at which the nuclear fuel is exhausted. Here is where things get interesting. For the entire life of the star, the nuclear reaction at its core produced an enormous outward force. Interestingly enough, an exactly equal force, namely gravity, was pushing inward toward the center. The equilibrium of the two forces allowed the star to maintain its shape and not break away nor collapse. Eventually, the fuel for the star runs out, and it this point, the outward force is overpowered by the gravitational force, and the object caves in on itself. This is a gigantic implosion. Depending on the original and final mass of the star, several things might occur. A usual result of such an implosion is a star known as a white dwarf. This star has been pressed together to form a much more massive object. It is said that a teaspoon of matter off a white dwarf would weigh 2-4 tons. Upon the first discovery of a white dwarf, a debate arose as to how far a star can collapse. And in the 1920’s two leading astrophysicists, Subrahmanyan Chandrasekgar and Sir Arthur Eddington came up with different conclusions. Chandrasekhar looked at the relations of mass to radius of the star, and concluded an upper limit beyond which collapse would result in something called a neutron star. This limit of 1.4 solar masses was an accurate measurement and in 1983, the Nobel committee recognized his work and awarded him their prize in Physics. The white dwarf is massive, but not as massive as the next order of imploded star known as a neutron star. Often as the nuclear fuel is burned out, the star will begin to shed its matter in an explosion called a supernovae. When this occurs the star loses an enormous amount of mass, but that which is left behind, if greater than 1.4 solar masses, is a densely packed ball of neutrons. This star is so much more massive that a teaspoon of it’s matter would weigh somewhere in the area of 5 million tons in earth’s gravity. The magnitude of such a dense body is unimaginable. But even a neutron star isn’t the extreme when it comes to a star’s collapse. That brings us to the focus of this paper. It is felt, that when a star is massive enough, any where in the area of or larger than 3-3.5 solar masses, the collapse would cause something of a much greater mass. In fact, the mass of this new object is speculated to be infinite. Such an entity is what we call a black hole. After a black hole is created, the gravitational force continues to pull in space debris and all other types of matter in. This continuous addition makes the hole stronger and more powerful and obviously more massive. The simplest three dimensional geometry for a black hole is a sphere. This type of black hole is called a Schwarzschild black hole. Kurt Schwarzschild was a German astrophysicist who figured out the critical radius for a given mass which would become a black hole. This calculation showed that at a specific point matter would collapse to an infinitely dense state. This is known as singularity. Here too, the pull of gravity is infinitely strong, and space and time can no longer be thought of in conventional ways. At singularity, the laws defined by Newton and Einstein no longer hold true, and a myterious world of quantum gravity exists. In the Schwarzschild black hole, the event horizon, or skin of the black hole, is the boundary beyond which nothing could escape the gravitational pull. Most black holes would tend to be in a consistent spinning motion, because of the original spin of the star. This motion absorbs various matter and spins it within the ring that is formed around the black hole. This ring is the singularity. The matter keeps within the Event Horizon until it has spun into the center where it is concentrated within the core adding to the mass. Such spinning black holes are known as Kerr Black Holes. Roy P. Kerr, an Australian mathematician happened upon the solution to the Einstein equations for black holes with angular momentums. This black hole is very similar to the previous one. There are, however, some differences which make it more viable for real, existing ones. The singularity in the this hole is more time-like, while the other is more space-like. With this subtle difference, objects would be able to enter the black whole from regions away from the equator of the event horizon and not be destroyed. The reason it is called a black hole is because any light inside of the singularity would be pulled back by the infinite gravity so that none of it could escape. As a result anything passing beyond the event horizon would dissappear from sight forever, thus making the black hole impossible for humans to see without using technologicalyl advanced instruments for measuring such things like radiation. The second part of the name referring to the hole is due to the fact that the actual hole, is where everything is absorbed and where the center core presides. This core is the main part of the black hole where the mass is concentrated and appears purely black on all readings even through the use of radiation detection devices. The first scientists to really take an in depth look at black holes and the collapsing of stars, were a professor, Robert Oppenheimer and his student Hartland Snyder, in the early nineteen hundreds. They concluded on the basis of Einstein's theory of relativity that if the speed of light was the utmost speed over any massive object, then nothing could escape a black hole once in it's clutches. It should be noted, all of this information is speculation. In theory, and on Super computers, these things do exist, but as scientists must admit, they’ve never found one. So the question arises, how can we see black holes? Well, there are several approaches to this question. Obviously, as realized from a previous paragraph, by seeing, it isn’t necessarily meant to be a visual representation. So we’re left with two approaches. The first deals with X-ray detection. In this precision measuring system, scientists would look for areas that would create enormous shifts in energy levels. Such shifts would result from gases that are sucked into the black hole. The enormous jolt in gravitation would heat the gases by millions of degrees. Such a rise could be evidence of a black hole. The other means of detection lies in another theory altogether. The concept of gravitational waves could point to black holes, and researchers are developing ways to read them. Gravitational Waves are predicted by Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity. They are perturbations in the curvature of spacetime. Sir Arthur Eddington was a strong supporter of Einstein, but was skeptical of gravity waves and is reported to have said, Graviatational waves propagate at the speed of thought. But what they are is important to a theory. Gravitational waves are enormous ripples eminating from the core of the black hole and other large masses and are said to travel at the speed of light, but not through spacetime, but rather as the backbone of spacetime itself. These ripples pass straight through matter, and their strength weakens as it gets farther from the source. The ripples would be similar to a stone dropped in water, with larger ones toward the center and fainter ones along the outer circumference. The only problem is that these ripples are so minute that detecting them would require instrumentation way beyond our present capabilities. Because they’re unaffected by matter, they carry a pure signal, not like X-rays which are diffused and distorted. In simulations the black hole creates a unique frequency known as it natural mode of vibrations. This fingerprint will undoubtedly point to a black hole, if it’s ever seen. Just recently a major discovery was found with the help of The Hubble Space Telescope. This telescope has just recently found what many astronomers believe to be a black hole, after being focused on a star orbiting an empty space. Several picture were sent back to Earth from the telescope showing many computer enhanced pictures of various radiation fluctuations and other diverse types of readings that could be read from the area in which the black hole is suspected to be in. Because a black hole floats wherever the star collapsed, the truth is, it can vastly effect the surrounding area, which might have other stars in it. It could also absorb a star and wipe it out of existance. When a black hole absorbs a star, the star is first pulled into the Ergosphere, this is the area between the event horizon and singularity, which sweeps all the matter into the event horizon, named for it's flat horizontal appearance and critical properties where all transitions take place. The black hole doesn’t just pull the star in like a vaccuum, rather it creates what is known as an accretion disk which is a vortex like phenomenom where the star’s material appears to go down the drain of the black hole. When the star is passed on into the event horizon the light that the star ordinarily gives off builds inside the ergosphere of the black hole but doesn’t escape. At this exact point in time, high amounts of radiation are given off, and with the proper equipment, this radiation can be detected and seen as an image of emptiness or as preferred, a black hole. Through this technique astronomers now believe that they have found a black hole known as Cygnus X1. This supposed black hole has a huge star orbiting around it, therefore we assume there must be a black hole that it is in orbit with. Science Fiction has used the black hole to come up with several movies and fantastical events related to the massive beast. Tales of time travel and of parallel universes lie beyond the hole. Passing the event horizon could send you on that fantastical trip. Some think there would be enough gravitational force to possible warp you to an end of the universe or possibly to a completely different one. The theories about what could lie beyond a black hole are endless. The real quest is to first find one. So the question remains, do they exist? Black holes exist, unfortunately for the scientific community, their life is restricted to formulas and super computers. But, and there is a but, the scientific community is relentless in their quest to build a better means of tracking. Already the advances of hyper-sensitive equipment is showing some good signs, and the accuracy will only get better.
Understanding For ages people have been determined to explicate on everything. Our search for explanation rests only when there is a lack of questions. Our skies hold infinite quandaries, so the quest for answers will, as a result, also be infinite. Since its inception, Astronomy as a science speculated heavily upon discovery, and only came to concrete conclusions later with closer inspection. Aspects of the skies which at one time seemed like reasonable explanations are now laughed at as egotistical ventures. Time has shown that as better instrumentation was developed, more accurate understanding was attained. Now it seems, as we advance on scientific frontiers, the new quest of the heavens is to find and explain the phenomenom known as a black hole. The goal of this paper is to explain how the concept of a black hole came about, and give some insight on how black holes are formed and might be tracked down in our more technologically advanced future. Gaining an understanding of a black hole allows for a greater understanding of the concept of spacetime and maybe give us a grasp of both science fiction and science fact. Hopefully, all the clarification will come by the close of this essay. A black hole is probably one of the most misunderstood ideas among people outside of the astronomical and physical communities. Before an understanding of how it is formed can take place, a bit of an introduction to stars is necessary. This will shed light (no pun intended) on the black hole philosophy. A star is an enormous fire ball, fueled by a nuclear reaction at its core which produces massive amounts of heat and pressure. It is formed when two or more enormous gaseous clouds come together which forms the core, and as an aftereffect the conversion, due to that impact, of huge amounts of energy from the two clouds. The clouds come together with a great enough force, that a nuclear reaction ensues. This type of energy is created by fusion wherein the atoms are forced together to form a new one. In turn, heat in excess of millions of degrees farenheit are produced. This activity goes on for eons until the point at which the nuclear fuel is exhausted. Here is where things get interesting. For the entire life of the star, the nuclear reaction at its core produced an enormous outward force. Interestingly enough, an exactly equal force, namely gravity, was pushing inward toward the center. The equilibrium of the two forces allowed the star to maintain its shape and not break away nor collapse. Eventually, the fuel for the star runs out, and it this point, the outward force is overpowered by the gravitational force, and the object caves in on itself. This is a gigantic implosion. Depending on the original and final mass of the star, several things might occur. A usual result of such an implosion is a star known as a white dwarf. This star has been pressed together to form a much more massive object. It is said that a teaspoon of matter off a white dwarf would weigh 2-4 tons. Upon the first discovery of a white dwarf, a debate arose as to how far a star can collapse. And in the 1920’s two leading astrophysicists, Subrahmanyan Chandrasekgar and Sir Arthur Eddington came up with different conclusions. Chandrasekhar looked at the relations of mass to radius of the star, and concluded an upper limit beyond which collapse would result in something called a neutron star. This limit of 1.4 solar masses was an accurate measurement and in 1983, the Nobel committee recognized his work and awarded him their prize in Physics. The white dwarf is massive, but not as massive as the next order of imploded star known as a neutron star. Often as the nuclear fuel is burned out, the star will begin to shed its matter in an explosion called a supernovae. When this occurs the star loses an enormous amount of mass, but that which is left behind, if greater than 1.4 solar masses, is a densely packed ball of neutrons. This star is so much more massive that a teaspoon of it’s matter would weigh somewhere in the area of 5 million tons in earth’s gravity. The magnitude of such a dense body is unimaginable. But even a neutron star isn’t the extreme when it comes to a star’s collapse. That brings us to the focus of this paper. It is felt, that when a star is massive enough, any where in the area of or larger than 3-3.5 solar masses, the collapse would cause something of a much greater mass. In fact, the mass of this new object is speculated to be infinite. Such an entity is what we call a black hole. After a black hole is created, the gravitational force continues to pull in space debris and all other types of matter in. This continuous addition makes the hole stronger and more powerful and obviously more massive. The simplest three dimensional geometry for a black hole is a sphere. This type of black hole is called a Schwarzschild black hole. Kurt Schwarzschild was a German astrophysicist who figured out the critical radius for a given mass which would become a black hole. This calculation showed that at a specific point matter would collapse to an infinitely dense state. This is known as singularity. Here too, the pull of gravity is infinitely strong, and space and time can no longer be thought of in conventional ways. At singularity, the laws defined by Newton and Einstein no longer hold true, and a myterious world of quantum gravity exists. In the Schwarzschild black hole, the event horizon, or skin of the black hole, is the boundary beyond which nothing could escape the gravitational pull. Most black holes would tend to be in a consistent spinning motion, because of the original spin of the star. This motion absorbs various matter and spins it within the ring that is formed around the black hole. This ring is the singularity. The matter keeps within the Event Horizon until it has spun into the center where it is concentrated within the core adding to the mass. Such spinning black holes are known as Kerr Black Holes. Roy P. Kerr, an Australian mathematician happened upon the solution to the Einstein equations for black holes with angular momentums. This black hole is very similar to the previous one. There are, however, some differences which make it more viable for real, existing ones. The singularity in the this hole is more time-like, while the other is more space-like. With this subtle difference, objects would be able to enter the black whole from regions away from the equator of the event horizon and not be destroyed. The reason it is called a black hole is because any light inside of the singularity would be pulled back by the infinite gravity so that none of it could escape. As a result anything passing beyond the event horizon would dissappear from sight forever, thus making the black hole impossible for humans to see without using technologicalyl advanced instruments for measuring such things like radiation. The second part of the name referring to the hole is due to the fact that the actual hole, is where everything is absorbed and where the center core presides. This core is the main part of the black hole where the mass is concentrated and appears purely black on all readings even through the use of radiation detection devices. The first scientists to really take an in depth look at black holes and the collapsing of stars, were a professor, Robert Oppenheimer and his student Hartland Snyder, in the early nineteen hundreds. They concluded on the basis of Einstein's theory of relativity that if the speed of light was the utmost speed over any massive object, then nothing could escape a black hole once in it's clutches. It should be noted, all of this information is speculation. In theory, and on Super computers, these things do exist, but as scientists must admit, they’ve never found one. So the question arises, how can we see black holes? Well, there are several approaches to this question. Obviously, as realized from a previous paragraph, by seeing, it isn’t necessarily meant to be a visual representation. So we’re left with two approaches. The first deals with X-ray detection. In this precision measuring system, scientists would look for areas that would create enormous shifts in energy levels. Such shifts would result from gases that are sucked into the black hole. The enormous jolt in gravitation would heat the gases by millions of degrees. Such a rise could be evidence of a black hole. The other means of detection lies in another theory altogether. The concept of gravitational waves could point to black holes, and researchers are developing ways to read them. Gravitational Waves are predicted by Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity. They are perturbations in the curvature of spacetime. Sir Arthur Eddington was a strong supporter of Einstein, but was skeptical of gravity waves and is reported to have said, Graviatational waves propagate at the speed of thought. But what they are is important to a theory. Gravitational waves are enormous ripples eminating from the core of the black hole and other large masses and are said to travel at the speed of light, but not through spacetime, but rather as the backbone of spacetime itself. These ripples pass straight through matter, and their strength weakens as it gets farther from the source. The ripples would be similar to a stone dropped in water, with larger ones toward the center and fainter ones along the outer circumference. The only problem is that these ripples are so minute that detecting them would require instrumentation way beyond our present capabilities. Because they’re unaffected by matter, they carry a pure signal, not like X-rays which are diffused and distorted. In simulations the black hole creates a unique frequency known as it natural mode of vibrations. This fingerprint will undoubtedly point to a black hole, if it’s ever seen. Just recently a major discovery was found with the help of The Hubble Space Telescope. This telescope has just recently found what many astronomers believe to be a black hole, after being focused on a star orbiting an empty space. Several picture were sent back to Earth from the telescope showing many computer enhanced pictures of various radiation fluctuations and other diverse types of readings that could be read from the area in which the black hole is suspected to be in. Because a black hole floats wherever the star collapsed, the truth is, it can vastly effect the surrounding area, which might have other stars in it. It could also absorb a star and wipe it out of existance. When a black hole absorbs a star, the star is first pulled into the Ergosphere, this is the area between the event horizon and singularity, which sweeps all the matter into the event horizon, named for it's flat horizontal appearance and critical properties where all transitions take place. The black hole doesn’t just pull the star in like a vaccuum, rather it creates what is known as an accretion disk which is a vortex like phenomenom where the star’s material appears to go down the drain of the black hole. When the star is passed on into the event horizon the light that the star ordinarily gives off builds inside the ergosphere of the black hole but doesn’t escape. At this exact point in time, high amounts of radiation are given off, and with the proper equipment, this radiation can be detected and seen as an image of emptiness or as preferred, a black hole. Through this technique astronomers now believe that they have found a black hole known as Cygnus X1. This supposed black hole has a huge star orbiting around it, therefore we assume there must be a black hole that it is in orbit with. Science Fiction has used the black hole to come up with several movies and fantastical events related to the massive beast. Tales of time travel and of parallel universes lie beyond the hole. Passing the event horizon could send you on that fantastical trip. Some think there would be enough gravitational force to possible warp you to an end of the universe or possibly to a completely different one. The theories about what could lie beyond a black hole are endless. The real quest is to first find one. So the question remains, do they exist? Black holes exist, unfortunately for the scientific community, their life is restricted to formulas and super computers. But, and there is a but, the scientific community is relentless in their quest to build a better means of tracking. Already the advances of hyper-sensitive equipment is showing some good signs, and the accuracy will only get better.
SOLAR-ENERGY.
Tran 1 Solar Energy About 47 percent of the energy that the sun releases to the earth actually reaches the ground. About a third is reflected directly back into space by the atmosphere. The time in which solar energy is available, is also the time we least need it least - daytime. Because the sun's energy cannot be stored for use another time, we need to convert the suns energy into an energy that can be stored. One possible method of storing solar energy is by heating water that can be insulated. The water is heated by passing it through hollow panels. Black-coated steal plates are used because dark colors absorb heat more efficiently. However, this method only supplies enough energy for activities such as washing and bathing. The solar panels generate low grade heat, that is, they generate low temperatures for the amount of heat needed in a day. In order to generate high grade heat, intense enough to convert water into high-pressure steam which can then be used to turn electric generators there must be another method. The concentrated beams of sunlight are collected in a device called a solar furnace, which acts on the same principles as a large magnifying glass. The solar furnace takes the sunlight from a large area and by the use of lenses and mirrors can focus the light into a very small area. Very elaborate solar furnaces have machines that angle the mirrors and lenses to the sun all day. This system can provide sizable amounts of electricity and create extremely high temperatures of over 6000 degrees Fahrenheit. Solar energy generators are very clean, little waste is emitted from the generators into the environment. The use of coal, oil and gasoline is a constant drain, economically and environmentally. Will solar energy be the wave of the future? Could the worlds Tran 2 requirement of energy be fulfilled by the powerhouse of our galaxy - the sun? Automobiles in the future will probably run on solar energy, and houses will have solar heaters. Solar cells today are mostly made of silicon, one of the most common elements on Earth. The crystalline silicon solar cell was one of the first types to be developed and it is still the most common type in use today. They do not pollute the atmosphere and they leave behind no harmful waste products. Photovoltaic cells work effectively even in cloudy weather and unlike solar heaters, are more efficient at low temperatures. They do their job silently and there are no moving parts to wear out. It is no wonder that one marvels on how such a device would function. To understand how a solar cell works, it is necessary to go back to some basic atomic concepts. In the simplest model of the atom, electrons orbit a central nucleus, composed of protons and neutrons. Each electron carries one negative charge and each proton one positive charge. Neutrons carry no charge. Every atom has the same number of electrons as there are protons, so, on the whole, it is electrically neutral. The electrons have discrete kinetic energy levels, which increase with the orbital radius. When atoms bond together to form a solid, the electron energy levels merge into bands. In electrical conductors, these bands are continuous but in insulators and semiconductors there is an energy gap, in which no electron orbits can exist, between the inner valence band and outer conduction band [Book 1]. Valence electrons help to bind together the atoms in a solid by orbiting 2 adjacent nuclei, while conduction electrons, being less closely bound to the nuclei, are free to move in response to an applied voltage or electric field. The fewer conduction electrons there are, the higher the electrical resistively of the material. Tran 3 In semiconductors, the materials from which solar sells are made, the energy gap E.g. is fairly small. Because of this, electrons in the valence band can easily be made to jump to the conduction band by the injection of energy, either in the form of heat or light [Book 4]. This explains why the high resistively of semiconductors decreases as the temperature is raised or the material illuminated. The excitation of valence electrons to the conduction band is best accomplished when the semiconductor is in the crystalline state, i.e. when the atoms are arranged in a precise geometrical formation or “lattice.” At room temperature and low illumination, pure or so-called intrinsic semiconductors have a high resistively. But the resistively can be greatly reduced by doping,” i.e. introducing a very small amount of impurity, of the order of one in a million atoms. There are 2 kinds of doping. Those which have more valence electrons that the semiconductor itself are called donors and those which have fewer are termed acceptors [Book 2]. In a silicon crystal, each atom has 4 valence electrons, which are shared with a neighboring atom to form a stable tetrahedral structure. Phosphorus, which has 5 valence electrons, is a donor and causes extra electrons to appear in the conduction band. Silicon so doped is called n-type [Book 5]. On the other hand, boron, with a valence of 3, is an acceptor, leaving so-called holes in the lattice, which act like positive charges and render the silicon p-type[Book 5]. Holes, like electrons, will remove under the influence of an applied voltage but, as the mechanism of their movement is valence electron substitution from atom to atom, they are less mobile than the free conduction electrons [Book 2]. In a n-on-p crystalline silicon Tran 4 solar cell, a shadow junction is formed by diffusing phosphorus into a boron-based base. At the junction, conduction electrons from donor atoms in the n-region diffuse into the p-region and combine with holes in acceptor atoms, producing a layer of negatively-charged impurity atoms. The opposite action also takes place, holes from acceptor atoms in the p-region crossing into the n-region, combining with electrons and producing positively-charged impurity atoms [Book 4]. The net result of these movements is the disappearance of conduction electrons and holes from the vicinity of the junction and the establishment there of a reverse electric field, which is positive on the n-side and negative on the p-side. This reverse field plays a vital part in the functioning of the device. The area in which it is set up is called the depletion area or barrier layer[Book 4]. When light falls on the front surface, photons with energy in excess of the energy gap interact with valence electrons and lift them to the conduction band. This movement leaves behind holes, so each photon is said to generate an electron-hole pair [Book 2]. In the crystalline silicon, electron-hole generation takes place throughout the thickness of the cell, in concentrations depending on the irradiance and the spectral composition of the light. Photon energy is inversely proportional to wavelength. The highly energetic photons in the ultra-violet and blue part of the spectrum are absorbed very near the surface, while the less energetic longer wave photons in the red and infrared are absorbed deeper in the crystal and further from the junction [Book 4]. Most are absorbed within a thickness of 100 æm. The electrons and holes diffuse through the crystal in an effort to produce an even distribution. Some recombine after a lifetime of the order of one millisecond, neutralizing their charges and giving up energy in the form of heat. Others reach the junction before their lifetime has expired. There they are separated Tran 5 by the reverse field, the electrons being accelerated towards the negative contact and the holes towards the positive [Book 5]. If the cell is connected to a load, electrons will be pushed from the negative contact through the load to the positive contact, where they will recombine with holes. This constitutes an electric current. In crystalline silicon cells, the current generated by radiation of a particular spectral composition is directly proportional to the irradiance [Book 2]. Some types of solar cell, however, do not exhibit this linear relationship. The silicon solar cell has many advantages such as high reliability, photovoltaic power plants can be put up easily and quickly, photovoltaic power plants are quite modular and can respond to sudden changes in solar input which occur when clouds pass by. However there are still some major problems with them. They still cost too much for mass use and are relatively inefficient with conversion efficiencies of 20% to 30%. With time, both of these problems will be solved through mass production and new technological advances in semiconductors.
Tran 1 Solar Energy About 47 percent of the energy that the sun releases to the earth actually reaches the ground. About a third is reflected directly back into space by the atmosphere. The time in which solar energy is available, is also the time we least need it least - daytime. Because the sun's energy cannot be stored for use another time, we need to convert the suns energy into an energy that can be stored. One possible method of storing solar energy is by heating water that can be insulated. The water is heated by passing it through hollow panels. Black-coated steal plates are used because dark colors absorb heat more efficiently. However, this method only supplies enough energy for activities such as washing and bathing. The solar panels generate low grade heat, that is, they generate low temperatures for the amount of heat needed in a day. In order to generate high grade heat, intense enough to convert water into high-pressure steam which can then be used to turn electric generators there must be another method. The concentrated beams of sunlight are collected in a device called a solar furnace, which acts on the same principles as a large magnifying glass. The solar furnace takes the sunlight from a large area and by the use of lenses and mirrors can focus the light into a very small area. Very elaborate solar furnaces have machines that angle the mirrors and lenses to the sun all day. This system can provide sizable amounts of electricity and create extremely high temperatures of over 6000 degrees Fahrenheit. Solar energy generators are very clean, little waste is emitted from the generators into the environment. The use of coal, oil and gasoline is a constant drain, economically and environmentally. Will solar energy be the wave of the future? Could the worlds Tran 2 requirement of energy be fulfilled by the powerhouse of our galaxy - the sun? Automobiles in the future will probably run on solar energy, and houses will have solar heaters. Solar cells today are mostly made of silicon, one of the most common elements on Earth. The crystalline silicon solar cell was one of the first types to be developed and it is still the most common type in use today. They do not pollute the atmosphere and they leave behind no harmful waste products. Photovoltaic cells work effectively even in cloudy weather and unlike solar heaters, are more efficient at low temperatures. They do their job silently and there are no moving parts to wear out. It is no wonder that one marvels on how such a device would function. To understand how a solar cell works, it is necessary to go back to some basic atomic concepts. In the simplest model of the atom, electrons orbit a central nucleus, composed of protons and neutrons. Each electron carries one negative charge and each proton one positive charge. Neutrons carry no charge. Every atom has the same number of electrons as there are protons, so, on the whole, it is electrically neutral. The electrons have discrete kinetic energy levels, which increase with the orbital radius. When atoms bond together to form a solid, the electron energy levels merge into bands. In electrical conductors, these bands are continuous but in insulators and semiconductors there is an energy gap, in which no electron orbits can exist, between the inner valence band and outer conduction band [Book 1]. Valence electrons help to bind together the atoms in a solid by orbiting 2 adjacent nuclei, while conduction electrons, being less closely bound to the nuclei, are free to move in response to an applied voltage or electric field. The fewer conduction electrons there are, the higher the electrical resistively of the material. Tran 3 In semiconductors, the materials from which solar sells are made, the energy gap E.g. is fairly small. Because of this, electrons in the valence band can easily be made to jump to the conduction band by the injection of energy, either in the form of heat or light [Book 4]. This explains why the high resistively of semiconductors decreases as the temperature is raised or the material illuminated. The excitation of valence electrons to the conduction band is best accomplished when the semiconductor is in the crystalline state, i.e. when the atoms are arranged in a precise geometrical formation or “lattice.” At room temperature and low illumination, pure or so-called intrinsic semiconductors have a high resistively. But the resistively can be greatly reduced by doping,” i.e. introducing a very small amount of impurity, of the order of one in a million atoms. There are 2 kinds of doping. Those which have more valence electrons that the semiconductor itself are called donors and those which have fewer are termed acceptors [Book 2]. In a silicon crystal, each atom has 4 valence electrons, which are shared with a neighboring atom to form a stable tetrahedral structure. Phosphorus, which has 5 valence electrons, is a donor and causes extra electrons to appear in the conduction band. Silicon so doped is called n-type [Book 5]. On the other hand, boron, with a valence of 3, is an acceptor, leaving so-called holes in the lattice, which act like positive charges and render the silicon p-type[Book 5]. Holes, like electrons, will remove under the influence of an applied voltage but, as the mechanism of their movement is valence electron substitution from atom to atom, they are less mobile than the free conduction electrons [Book 2]. In a n-on-p crystalline silicon Tran 4 solar cell, a shadow junction is formed by diffusing phosphorus into a boron-based base. At the junction, conduction electrons from donor atoms in the n-region diffuse into the p-region and combine with holes in acceptor atoms, producing a layer of negatively-charged impurity atoms. The opposite action also takes place, holes from acceptor atoms in the p-region crossing into the n-region, combining with electrons and producing positively-charged impurity atoms [Book 4]. The net result of these movements is the disappearance of conduction electrons and holes from the vicinity of the junction and the establishment there of a reverse electric field, which is positive on the n-side and negative on the p-side. This reverse field plays a vital part in the functioning of the device. The area in which it is set up is called the depletion area or barrier layer[Book 4]. When light falls on the front surface, photons with energy in excess of the energy gap interact with valence electrons and lift them to the conduction band. This movement leaves behind holes, so each photon is said to generate an electron-hole pair [Book 2]. In the crystalline silicon, electron-hole generation takes place throughout the thickness of the cell, in concentrations depending on the irradiance and the spectral composition of the light. Photon energy is inversely proportional to wavelength. The highly energetic photons in the ultra-violet and blue part of the spectrum are absorbed very near the surface, while the less energetic longer wave photons in the red and infrared are absorbed deeper in the crystal and further from the junction [Book 4]. Most are absorbed within a thickness of 100 æm. The electrons and holes diffuse through the crystal in an effort to produce an even distribution. Some recombine after a lifetime of the order of one millisecond, neutralizing their charges and giving up energy in the form of heat. Others reach the junction before their lifetime has expired. There they are separated Tran 5 by the reverse field, the electrons being accelerated towards the negative contact and the holes towards the positive [Book 5]. If the cell is connected to a load, electrons will be pushed from the negative contact through the load to the positive contact, where they will recombine with holes. This constitutes an electric current. In crystalline silicon cells, the current generated by radiation of a particular spectral composition is directly proportional to the irradiance [Book 2]. Some types of solar cell, however, do not exhibit this linear relationship. The silicon solar cell has many advantages such as high reliability, photovoltaic power plants can be put up easily and quickly, photovoltaic power plants are quite modular and can respond to sudden changes in solar input which occur when clouds pass by. However there are still some major problems with them. They still cost too much for mass use and are relatively inefficient with conversion efficiencies of 20% to 30%. With time, both of these problems will be solved through mass production and new technological advances in semiconductors.
PHYSICS OF SOUND.
Sound surrounds us at all times. The ring of an alarm clock or the whistle of birds may wake us up in the morning. Through out the day, we hear a variety of sounds; for instance, the banging of pots and pans, the roar of traffic, and the voices of people. When we fall asleep at night, we might listen to the sounds of frogs croaking or the wind whistling. All sounds have one thing in common. This being that the vibrations of an object makes every sound. When an object vibrates, it causes the air around it to vibrate. The vibrations in the air travel out from all directions of the object. They then reach our ears, and the brain reads them as sounds. Many sounds we hear travel through the air; however, they can also travel through solid objects like the earth. Our voice is made in the larynx, which is a part of the throat. Two small pieces of tissue are spread across the larynx. These pieces, called vocal chords, make the opening smaller. Air from he lungs quickly passes trough the tightened chords, causing them to vibrate. The vibrations make the sound of the voice. The tighter the chords are, the faster the vibrations and the higher the resulting sound. If a rock is thrown onto a still pond, several waves travel out from the place where the rock hit the surface. Likewise, sound moves in waves through the air or some other medium. The understanding that sound travels in the form of waves may have originated with the artist Leonardo Da Vinci in 1500. Generally, waves can be spread transversely or longitudinally. In both cases, only the energy of wave motion is spread through medium. No portion of the medium actually moves very far. As the waves caused by the moving object travel outward, they are carried by a medium. This movement causes compression. As the movements move backward it is called rarefractions. Sound requires a medium to travel; therefore, it cannot travel in space, which is a vacuum with no medium. The number of compressions and rarefractions per second is called frequency, The more rapidly and object vibrates, the higher the frequency. Frequency is measured in hertz. As the frequency of a sound wave increases, the wavelength decreases. Wavelength is the distance between one point on a wave to the corresponding point on the next wave. Most people hear sounds with frequencies that fall between 20 and 20,000 hertz. Many animals can hear sounds about 20,000 hertz. A person’s voice can have a range of about 85 to 1,100 hertz. When sound waves leave one medium and enter another in which the speed of sound differs, the direction of the waves is altered. This change in direction results from a change in the speed of waves called refraction. Sound waves can also be refracted if the speed of the sound changes according to their position in a medium. The waves bend toward the region of slower speed. Sound travels farther when the air is cooler. During the day, the ground is warmer than the air above. Sound waves are bent away from the ground into the cooler air above, where their speed is slower allowing the sound to be heard over longer distances. The spreading out of waves as they pass by the edge of an obstacle or through and opening is called diffraction. It occurs whenever a sound wave encounters an obstacle or opening. Diffraction enables sound to be heard around a corner, even though no straight path exists from the source of the sound to the ear. If sound travels at about the same speed in both materials with the same density, little sound will be reflected. Instead, most of the sound will be transmitted into the new medium. If the speed differs greatly in the two mediums and their densities are greatly different, most of the sound will be reflected. The intensity of a sound is related to the amount of energy in the sound waves. Intensity depends on the amplitude of the vibrations making the waves. Amplitude is the distance that the object producing the sound travels as it vibrates. A more intense sound will have greater amplitude. The loudness of a sound is how strong the sound is to us when it hits our ears. At a certain frequency, the more intense the sound is, the louder it seems. Equally intense sounds of different frequencies are not equally loud. Resonance is the reinforcing of sound. It occurs when a small, repeated force produces larger and larger vibrations in an object. To produce resonance, the repeated force must be applied with the same frequency as the resonance frequency of the object. Sound makes life more interesting. Without it things would be dull and boring. Because of sound we are able to verbally communicate with others, show emotions, and express our beliefs. Sound is a very important factor in the lives of many.
Sound surrounds us at all times. The ring of an alarm clock or the whistle of birds may wake us up in the morning. Through out the day, we hear a variety of sounds; for instance, the banging of pots and pans, the roar of traffic, and the voices of people. When we fall asleep at night, we might listen to the sounds of frogs croaking or the wind whistling. All sounds have one thing in common. This being that the vibrations of an object makes every sound. When an object vibrates, it causes the air around it to vibrate. The vibrations in the air travel out from all directions of the object. They then reach our ears, and the brain reads them as sounds. Many sounds we hear travel through the air; however, they can also travel through solid objects like the earth. Our voice is made in the larynx, which is a part of the throat. Two small pieces of tissue are spread across the larynx. These pieces, called vocal chords, make the opening smaller. Air from he lungs quickly passes trough the tightened chords, causing them to vibrate. The vibrations make the sound of the voice. The tighter the chords are, the faster the vibrations and the higher the resulting sound. If a rock is thrown onto a still pond, several waves travel out from the place where the rock hit the surface. Likewise, sound moves in waves through the air or some other medium. The understanding that sound travels in the form of waves may have originated with the artist Leonardo Da Vinci in 1500. Generally, waves can be spread transversely or longitudinally. In both cases, only the energy of wave motion is spread through medium. No portion of the medium actually moves very far. As the waves caused by the moving object travel outward, they are carried by a medium. This movement causes compression. As the movements move backward it is called rarefractions. Sound requires a medium to travel; therefore, it cannot travel in space, which is a vacuum with no medium. The number of compressions and rarefractions per second is called frequency, The more rapidly and object vibrates, the higher the frequency. Frequency is measured in hertz. As the frequency of a sound wave increases, the wavelength decreases. Wavelength is the distance between one point on a wave to the corresponding point on the next wave. Most people hear sounds with frequencies that fall between 20 and 20,000 hertz. Many animals can hear sounds about 20,000 hertz. A person’s voice can have a range of about 85 to 1,100 hertz. When sound waves leave one medium and enter another in which the speed of sound differs, the direction of the waves is altered. This change in direction results from a change in the speed of waves called refraction. Sound waves can also be refracted if the speed of the sound changes according to their position in a medium. The waves bend toward the region of slower speed. Sound travels farther when the air is cooler. During the day, the ground is warmer than the air above. Sound waves are bent away from the ground into the cooler air above, where their speed is slower allowing the sound to be heard over longer distances. The spreading out of waves as they pass by the edge of an obstacle or through and opening is called diffraction. It occurs whenever a sound wave encounters an obstacle or opening. Diffraction enables sound to be heard around a corner, even though no straight path exists from the source of the sound to the ear. If sound travels at about the same speed in both materials with the same density, little sound will be reflected. Instead, most of the sound will be transmitted into the new medium. If the speed differs greatly in the two mediums and their densities are greatly different, most of the sound will be reflected. The intensity of a sound is related to the amount of energy in the sound waves. Intensity depends on the amplitude of the vibrations making the waves. Amplitude is the distance that the object producing the sound travels as it vibrates. A more intense sound will have greater amplitude. The loudness of a sound is how strong the sound is to us when it hits our ears. At a certain frequency, the more intense the sound is, the louder it seems. Equally intense sounds of different frequencies are not equally loud. Resonance is the reinforcing of sound. It occurs when a small, repeated force produces larger and larger vibrations in an object. To produce resonance, the repeated force must be applied with the same frequency as the resonance frequency of the object. Sound makes life more interesting. Without it things would be dull and boring. Because of sound we are able to verbally communicate with others, show emotions, and express our beliefs. Sound is a very important factor in the lives of many.
SOLAR-SYSTEM.
Planets and Solar System The Planets and the Solar System Planets 2 A planet is a celestial body that revolves around a central star and does not shine by its own light (Grolier, 1992). The only planetary system that is known to man is our solar system. It is made up of nine planets which range in size and make-up. The nine major planets in our solar system are Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and Pluto. There are also many other minor planets which are also in our solar system, but they are unimportant compared to the nine major planets. In this paper I will discuss the planets and how they are each unique. Mercury which is the planet that is closest to the sun is the first planet I will discuss. Mercury is the smallest of the inner planets. It is speculated that the heat from the sun made it impossible for the gases present to become part of the planetary formation. The surface of Mercury is extremely hot. It is approximately 470 degrees celsius on the surface and is thought to be even hotter at the two hot spots. These hot spots are on opposite ends of the equator. It is the heat of the surface that makes it impossible for Mercury to have any type of atmosphere. Mercury orbits the sun once every 88 days and has a true rotation period of 58.6 days. It is the closest planet to the sun and therefore orbits faster than any other planet (Thompson/Turk, 542, 1993). It is said that Mercury rotates three times for every two trips around the sun, so that during Planets 3 every alternate perihelon passage the same face points directly at the sun. Geologically, the most remarkable features of Mercury are compressional cliffs or faults, just the sort of wrinkles that might form in the crust if the interior of the planet shrank slightly (Morrison, 74, 1993). It is speculated that it was the solidification of Mercury's metallic core that caused this global shrinkage. Mercury is also . . . enriched in metal or depleted of rock (Morrison, 74, 1993). It is also believed that some of the inner core of Mercury is still in a fluid state. Scientists also believe that Mercury's surface is made partially of silicate rock. The best way to describe Mercury is, . . . small, heavily cratered and airless (Morrison, 71, 1993). Venus is the second closest planet to the sun and is said to . . . most closely resemble Earth in size, density, and distance from the sun (Thompson/Turk, 542, 1993). Venus is known to most scientists as the sister planet to the Earth. It is called this because it closely resembles the Earth's mass, density and diameter. The only thing different is that Venus is shrouded in thick clouds that completely hide the surface of the planet (Grolier, 1992). The surface temperature is also much warmer than that of Earth. Venus completes one revolution around the sun in 224.7 days. This makes the Venusian day equal to 117 earth days. It is thought that this slow rotation may be the reason why Venus has no magnetic field. Planets 4 The atmosphere of Venus made up of 98% carbon dioxide and 2% Nitrogen. This atmosphere also has the presence of helium, neon and argon. This is yet another thing which makes Venus different from Earth. The surface of Venus is quite a bit like that of the Earth. The surface has volcanoes and smooth plains. Much of the volcanic activity on Venus takes the form of Basaltic eruptions that inundate large ares, much as the mare volcanism flooded the impacted basins on the near side of the moon (Morrison, 93, 1993). One thing that differs from Earth is that there is no water liquid on the Venusian surface. Some of the scientific data that follows was taken out of Cattermole's book. The mean distance from the sun is 108.20 Km. The equatorial diameter is 12,012 Km and the equatorial rotation is 243 days. Finally the mass of Venus is 4.87*10^24 (Cattermole, 63, 1993). Venus, although different than Earth, is still our sister planet. Mars is the fourth furthest away from the sun and is recognized by its reddish color. Mars is also very much like the Earth. More than any other planet in the solar system, Mars has characteristics that make it an Earth-like world (Grolier, 1992). One thing that is very similar to Earth is the rotation period. Mars rotation period is only thirty seven minutes longer than the Earth's. This would explain why Mars has significant seasonal changes just as Earth does. It is believed that the Planets 5 difference between winter and summer on Mars is even greater than on Earth. Mars is extremely hard to understand due to the effect of blurring that is caused by the two atmospheres of Mars. Scientists do know, however, that Mars is relatively small and that changes take place in the surface features when the seasons change. It is also known that dust storms are prevalent and leaves the surface of Mars covered by a red haze. Mars has a very thin atmosphere which is composed of carbon dioxide, nitrogen, argon, water vapor and oxygen. Mars also has no magnetic field. Because the atmosphere of mars is so thin, wind velocities up to several hundred Km per hour are required to raise the dust particles during a dust storm, and these fast- moving particles erode structures with a sand-blasting effect (Grolier, 1992). Therefore, the surface is basically plain-like and covered with large craters. There are also some areas where the rock is jumbled. The poles of Mars are iced over and the temperature is about 160 - 170 degrees K. Mars also has its share of volcanoes. Most of these volcanoes are shield volcanoes. The surface is littered with winding channels that resemble river channels that have dried up over time. Scientists believe that water once existed and caused the formation of these channels. It is said that, Mars remains the best candidate for life in the solar system outside of the Earth, and that is what makes Mars so interesting to scientists. Jupiter is the fifth planet and is the most massive of all Planets 6 the planets in this solar system. Its mass represents more than two-thirds of the total mass of all the planets, or 318 times the mass of the Earth. Jupiters density is quite low at 1.3 g/cubic cm. The atmosphere of Jupiter contains water, ammonia, methane and carbon. It is thought by scientists that there are three cloud layers. The wind activity on Jupiter is quite fierce and moves in jet streams parallel to the equator. The weather on Jupiter is still very hard for scientists to understand. There is not enough information to truly understand how the weather is on this planet. Jupiter is most known by the normal citizen by the rings it has. These rings are very diffuse. The ring particles must generally be about as big as the wavelength of light, that is, only a few microns (Grolier, 1992). That is why these rings are faint or diffuse. The rings are what Jupiter is known for. Saturn is a planet which is also known for its rings and when viewed has a yellow or grayish color. The color is from the gaseous atmosphere and the dust particles in that atmosphere. The atmosphere is mostly a clear hydrogen-helium atmosphere. There are also traces of methane, phosphine, ethane, and acetylene. This atmosphere is much different than that of the Earth's. Saturn orbits the sun with a period of 29.4577 tropical years. It is 1.427 billion Km away from the sun and is therefore a cold planet. It has an equatorial diameter of 120,660 Km which Planets 7 makes it the second largest planet in our solar system. The next planet is Uranus. The main problem scientists have with Uranus is that, the lack of visible surface features means that it is difficult to measure the rotation period of Uranus (Hunt/Moore, 388, 1983). Uranus has an equatorial diameter of 51,000 Km which is almost four times as much as Earth. The atmosphere is mostly methane gas and therefore the planet has a red tint or a blueish green color. Uranus also has rings but unlike Saturn these rings have almost no small particles. Scientists are not as concerned with this planet. Neptune is the last of the gaseous planets in our solar system. Its atmosphere is much like Uranus's because it is mostly helium and hydrogen. It also contains methane. Neptune has a diameter of 49,500 Km and a mass 17.22 times that of the Earth. It has an average density of 1.67 /cm^3 (Grolier, 1992). Neptune also has rings like its other gaseous partners, but they are very faint. Not a great deal is known about Neptune. It is widely studied by scientists and that makes it an important planet. The final planet, which is also the smallest, and the furthest away from the sun is Pluto. This planet is very hard to see therefore not a lot is known about its physical characteristics. Scientists do know that it has a thin methane atmosphere. Little is known about this planet because it is so far away from the Earth and the sun. Scientists are always learning new things and more data will arise in the future. Planets 8 As one can see the planets of most importance are the ones closest to the sun and Earth. Little is known about the far off planets therefore it is hard to give them full recognition. Much is known about Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn. The other three planets are not as well known as these six are. Whether more planetary systems exist doesn't really matter. There are still plenty of things we don't understand about our own solar system. Scientists will have their work cut out for them in the future. Each and every planet has distinct differences and that helps show us how truly great God is. The planets will never fully be understood and will always be a great topic of discussion.
Planets and Solar System The Planets and the Solar System Planets 2 A planet is a celestial body that revolves around a central star and does not shine by its own light (Grolier, 1992). The only planetary system that is known to man is our solar system. It is made up of nine planets which range in size and make-up. The nine major planets in our solar system are Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and Pluto. There are also many other minor planets which are also in our solar system, but they are unimportant compared to the nine major planets. In this paper I will discuss the planets and how they are each unique. Mercury which is the planet that is closest to the sun is the first planet I will discuss. Mercury is the smallest of the inner planets. It is speculated that the heat from the sun made it impossible for the gases present to become part of the planetary formation. The surface of Mercury is extremely hot. It is approximately 470 degrees celsius on the surface and is thought to be even hotter at the two hot spots. These hot spots are on opposite ends of the equator. It is the heat of the surface that makes it impossible for Mercury to have any type of atmosphere. Mercury orbits the sun once every 88 days and has a true rotation period of 58.6 days. It is the closest planet to the sun and therefore orbits faster than any other planet (Thompson/Turk, 542, 1993). It is said that Mercury rotates three times for every two trips around the sun, so that during Planets 3 every alternate perihelon passage the same face points directly at the sun. Geologically, the most remarkable features of Mercury are compressional cliffs or faults, just the sort of wrinkles that might form in the crust if the interior of the planet shrank slightly (Morrison, 74, 1993). It is speculated that it was the solidification of Mercury's metallic core that caused this global shrinkage. Mercury is also . . . enriched in metal or depleted of rock (Morrison, 74, 1993). It is also believed that some of the inner core of Mercury is still in a fluid state. Scientists also believe that Mercury's surface is made partially of silicate rock. The best way to describe Mercury is, . . . small, heavily cratered and airless (Morrison, 71, 1993). Venus is the second closest planet to the sun and is said to . . . most closely resemble Earth in size, density, and distance from the sun (Thompson/Turk, 542, 1993). Venus is known to most scientists as the sister planet to the Earth. It is called this because it closely resembles the Earth's mass, density and diameter. The only thing different is that Venus is shrouded in thick clouds that completely hide the surface of the planet (Grolier, 1992). The surface temperature is also much warmer than that of Earth. Venus completes one revolution around the sun in 224.7 days. This makes the Venusian day equal to 117 earth days. It is thought that this slow rotation may be the reason why Venus has no magnetic field. Planets 4 The atmosphere of Venus made up of 98% carbon dioxide and 2% Nitrogen. This atmosphere also has the presence of helium, neon and argon. This is yet another thing which makes Venus different from Earth. The surface of Venus is quite a bit like that of the Earth. The surface has volcanoes and smooth plains. Much of the volcanic activity on Venus takes the form of Basaltic eruptions that inundate large ares, much as the mare volcanism flooded the impacted basins on the near side of the moon (Morrison, 93, 1993). One thing that differs from Earth is that there is no water liquid on the Venusian surface. Some of the scientific data that follows was taken out of Cattermole's book. The mean distance from the sun is 108.20 Km. The equatorial diameter is 12,012 Km and the equatorial rotation is 243 days. Finally the mass of Venus is 4.87*10^24 (Cattermole, 63, 1993). Venus, although different than Earth, is still our sister planet. Mars is the fourth furthest away from the sun and is recognized by its reddish color. Mars is also very much like the Earth. More than any other planet in the solar system, Mars has characteristics that make it an Earth-like world (Grolier, 1992). One thing that is very similar to Earth is the rotation period. Mars rotation period is only thirty seven minutes longer than the Earth's. This would explain why Mars has significant seasonal changes just as Earth does. It is believed that the Planets 5 difference between winter and summer on Mars is even greater than on Earth. Mars is extremely hard to understand due to the effect of blurring that is caused by the two atmospheres of Mars. Scientists do know, however, that Mars is relatively small and that changes take place in the surface features when the seasons change. It is also known that dust storms are prevalent and leaves the surface of Mars covered by a red haze. Mars has a very thin atmosphere which is composed of carbon dioxide, nitrogen, argon, water vapor and oxygen. Mars also has no magnetic field. Because the atmosphere of mars is so thin, wind velocities up to several hundred Km per hour are required to raise the dust particles during a dust storm, and these fast- moving particles erode structures with a sand-blasting effect (Grolier, 1992). Therefore, the surface is basically plain-like and covered with large craters. There are also some areas where the rock is jumbled. The poles of Mars are iced over and the temperature is about 160 - 170 degrees K. Mars also has its share of volcanoes. Most of these volcanoes are shield volcanoes. The surface is littered with winding channels that resemble river channels that have dried up over time. Scientists believe that water once existed and caused the formation of these channels. It is said that, Mars remains the best candidate for life in the solar system outside of the Earth, and that is what makes Mars so interesting to scientists. Jupiter is the fifth planet and is the most massive of all Planets 6 the planets in this solar system. Its mass represents more than two-thirds of the total mass of all the planets, or 318 times the mass of the Earth. Jupiters density is quite low at 1.3 g/cubic cm. The atmosphere of Jupiter contains water, ammonia, methane and carbon. It is thought by scientists that there are three cloud layers. The wind activity on Jupiter is quite fierce and moves in jet streams parallel to the equator. The weather on Jupiter is still very hard for scientists to understand. There is not enough information to truly understand how the weather is on this planet. Jupiter is most known by the normal citizen by the rings it has. These rings are very diffuse. The ring particles must generally be about as big as the wavelength of light, that is, only a few microns (Grolier, 1992). That is why these rings are faint or diffuse. The rings are what Jupiter is known for. Saturn is a planet which is also known for its rings and when viewed has a yellow or grayish color. The color is from the gaseous atmosphere and the dust particles in that atmosphere. The atmosphere is mostly a clear hydrogen-helium atmosphere. There are also traces of methane, phosphine, ethane, and acetylene. This atmosphere is much different than that of the Earth's. Saturn orbits the sun with a period of 29.4577 tropical years. It is 1.427 billion Km away from the sun and is therefore a cold planet. It has an equatorial diameter of 120,660 Km which Planets 7 makes it the second largest planet in our solar system. The next planet is Uranus. The main problem scientists have with Uranus is that, the lack of visible surface features means that it is difficult to measure the rotation period of Uranus (Hunt/Moore, 388, 1983). Uranus has an equatorial diameter of 51,000 Km which is almost four times as much as Earth. The atmosphere is mostly methane gas and therefore the planet has a red tint or a blueish green color. Uranus also has rings but unlike Saturn these rings have almost no small particles. Scientists are not as concerned with this planet. Neptune is the last of the gaseous planets in our solar system. Its atmosphere is much like Uranus's because it is mostly helium and hydrogen. It also contains methane. Neptune has a diameter of 49,500 Km and a mass 17.22 times that of the Earth. It has an average density of 1.67 /cm^3 (Grolier, 1992). Neptune also has rings like its other gaseous partners, but they are very faint. Not a great deal is known about Neptune. It is widely studied by scientists and that makes it an important planet. The final planet, which is also the smallest, and the furthest away from the sun is Pluto. This planet is very hard to see therefore not a lot is known about its physical characteristics. Scientists do know that it has a thin methane atmosphere. Little is known about this planet because it is so far away from the Earth and the sun. Scientists are always learning new things and more data will arise in the future. Planets 8 As one can see the planets of most importance are the ones closest to the sun and Earth. Little is known about the far off planets therefore it is hard to give them full recognition. Much is known about Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn. The other three planets are not as well known as these six are. Whether more planetary systems exist doesn't really matter. There are still plenty of things we don't understand about our own solar system. Scientists will have their work cut out for them in the future. Each and every planet has distinct differences and that helps show us how truly great God is. The planets will never fully be understood and will always be a great topic of discussion.
HUMAN-BRAIN.
THE HUMAN BRAIN: The human body is divided into many different parts called organs. All of the parts are controlled by an organ called the brain, which is located in the head. The brain weighs about 2.75 pounds, and has a whitish-pink appearance. The brain is made up of many cells, and is the control center of the body. The brain flashes messages out to all the other parts of the body. The messages travel in very fine threads called nerves. The nerves and the brain make up a system somewhat like telephone poles carrying wires across the city. This is called the nervous system. The nerves in the body don't just send messages from the brain to the organs, but also send messages from the eyes, ears, skin and other organs back to your brain. Some nerves are linked directly to the brain. Others have to reach the brain through a sort of power line down the back, called the spinal cord. The brain and spinal cord make up the central nervous system. The brain doesn't just control your organs, but also can think and remember. That part of the brain is called the mind. Twenty-eight bones make up the skull. Eight of these bones are interlocking plates. These plates form the cranium. The cranium provides maximum protection with minimum weight, the ideal combination. The other twenty bones make up the face, jaw and other parts of the skull. Another way the brain keeps it self safe is by keeping itself in liquid. Nearly one fifth of the blood pumped by the heart is sent to the brain. The brain then sends the blood through an intricate network of blood vessels to where the blood is needed. Specialized blood vessels called choroid plexuses produce a protective cerebrospinal fluid. This fluid is what the brain literally floats in. A third protective measure taken by the brain is called the blood brain barrier. This barrier consists of a network of unique capillaries. These capillaries are filters for harmful chemicals carried by the blood, but do allow oxygen, water and glucose to enter the brain. The brain is divided into three main sections. The area at the front of the brain is the largest. Most of it is known as the cerebrum. It controls all of the movements that you have to think about, thought and memory. The cerebrum is split in two different sections, the right half and the left half. The outer layer of the cerebrum is called the cortex. It is mainly made up of cell bodies of neurons called grey matter. Most of the work the brain does is done in the cortex. It is very wrinkled and has many folds. The wrinkles and folds give the cortex a large surface area, even though it is squeezed up to fit in the skull. The extra surface area gives the cerebrum more area to work. Inside the cortex, the cerebrum is largely made up of white matter. White matter is tissue made only of nerve fibres. The middle region is deep inside the brain. It's chief purpose is to connect the front and the back of the brain together. The back area of the brain is divided into three different parts. The cerebellum sees to it that all the parts of your body work as a team. It also makes sure you keep your balance. The thalamus is located in between above the lower brain and under the two hemispheres. THE DIFFERENT SECTIONS OF THE BRAIN: Most of the above mentioned parts of the brain were produced early in evolution but the higher mammals, especially humans went on to produce a sort of thinking cap on top of these parts. This thinking cap was divided into two different parts, the left hemisphere and the right hemisphere. If the left side of your brain is more developed like most people's are, you are right handed. On the other hand if the right side of your brain is more developed, then you will be left handed. The right side of your brain is more artistic and emotional while the left side of your brain is your common sense and practical side, such as figuring out math and logic problems. THE CEREBELLUM: One of the most important parts of the human brain is the cerebellum. The cerebellum is involved with the more complex functions of the brain and sometimes is even referred to as the brain within the brain. The cerebellum acts as a control and coordination center for movement. The cerebellum carries small programs that have been previously learned. For example, how to write, move, run and jump are all previously learned activities that the brain recorded and can playback when needed. Every time you practice, the brain rewrites the program and makes it better. You may have heard the saying practice makes perfect. Well this saying is not entirely true; another way of practicing is just to imagine what you wish to do. Since the cerebellum can't actually feel, it will think that you are doing what your imagining and respond by rewriting it's previous program and carrying out any other actions needed for that function. THE CEREBRAL CORTEX: The cerebral cortex makes up the top of the two hemispheres of the brain. The cortex is a sheet of greyish matter which produces our thoughts, language and plans. It also controls our sensations and voluntary movements, stores our memories and gives us the ability to imagine, in short it's what makes humans, humans. BIBLIOGRAPHY. The Internet, various sites. Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia 1998 edition Britannica by Britannica, Encyclopedia Inc.copyright Encyclopedia Britannica Inc., 19864.
THE HUMAN BRAIN: The human body is divided into many different parts called organs. All of the parts are controlled by an organ called the brain, which is located in the head. The brain weighs about 2.75 pounds, and has a whitish-pink appearance. The brain is made up of many cells, and is the control center of the body. The brain flashes messages out to all the other parts of the body. The messages travel in very fine threads called nerves. The nerves and the brain make up a system somewhat like telephone poles carrying wires across the city. This is called the nervous system. The nerves in the body don't just send messages from the brain to the organs, but also send messages from the eyes, ears, skin and other organs back to your brain. Some nerves are linked directly to the brain. Others have to reach the brain through a sort of power line down the back, called the spinal cord. The brain and spinal cord make up the central nervous system. The brain doesn't just control your organs, but also can think and remember. That part of the brain is called the mind. Twenty-eight bones make up the skull. Eight of these bones are interlocking plates. These plates form the cranium. The cranium provides maximum protection with minimum weight, the ideal combination. The other twenty bones make up the face, jaw and other parts of the skull. Another way the brain keeps it self safe is by keeping itself in liquid. Nearly one fifth of the blood pumped by the heart is sent to the brain. The brain then sends the blood through an intricate network of blood vessels to where the blood is needed. Specialized blood vessels called choroid plexuses produce a protective cerebrospinal fluid. This fluid is what the brain literally floats in. A third protective measure taken by the brain is called the blood brain barrier. This barrier consists of a network of unique capillaries. These capillaries are filters for harmful chemicals carried by the blood, but do allow oxygen, water and glucose to enter the brain. The brain is divided into three main sections. The area at the front of the brain is the largest. Most of it is known as the cerebrum. It controls all of the movements that you have to think about, thought and memory. The cerebrum is split in two different sections, the right half and the left half. The outer layer of the cerebrum is called the cortex. It is mainly made up of cell bodies of neurons called grey matter. Most of the work the brain does is done in the cortex. It is very wrinkled and has many folds. The wrinkles and folds give the cortex a large surface area, even though it is squeezed up to fit in the skull. The extra surface area gives the cerebrum more area to work. Inside the cortex, the cerebrum is largely made up of white matter. White matter is tissue made only of nerve fibres. The middle region is deep inside the brain. It's chief purpose is to connect the front and the back of the brain together. The back area of the brain is divided into three different parts. The cerebellum sees to it that all the parts of your body work as a team. It also makes sure you keep your balance. The thalamus is located in between above the lower brain and under the two hemispheres. THE DIFFERENT SECTIONS OF THE BRAIN: Most of the above mentioned parts of the brain were produced early in evolution but the higher mammals, especially humans went on to produce a sort of thinking cap on top of these parts. This thinking cap was divided into two different parts, the left hemisphere and the right hemisphere. If the left side of your brain is more developed like most people's are, you are right handed. On the other hand if the right side of your brain is more developed, then you will be left handed. The right side of your brain is more artistic and emotional while the left side of your brain is your common sense and practical side, such as figuring out math and logic problems. THE CEREBELLUM: One of the most important parts of the human brain is the cerebellum. The cerebellum is involved with the more complex functions of the brain and sometimes is even referred to as the brain within the brain. The cerebellum acts as a control and coordination center for movement. The cerebellum carries small programs that have been previously learned. For example, how to write, move, run and jump are all previously learned activities that the brain recorded and can playback when needed. Every time you practice, the brain rewrites the program and makes it better. You may have heard the saying practice makes perfect. Well this saying is not entirely true; another way of practicing is just to imagine what you wish to do. Since the cerebellum can't actually feel, it will think that you are doing what your imagining and respond by rewriting it's previous program and carrying out any other actions needed for that function. THE CEREBRAL CORTEX: The cerebral cortex makes up the top of the two hemispheres of the brain. The cortex is a sheet of greyish matter which produces our thoughts, language and plans. It also controls our sensations and voluntary movements, stores our memories and gives us the ability to imagine, in short it's what makes humans, humans. BIBLIOGRAPHY. The Internet, various sites. Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia 1998 edition Britannica by Britannica, Encyclopedia Inc.copyright Encyclopedia Britannica Inc., 19864.
HIROSHIMA.
On August 6, 1945, a B-29 bomber named Enola Gay dropped an atomic bomb, little boy on Hiroshima, Japan. Hiroshima had been almost eradicated with an estimated 70-80,000 people killed. Three days later, a second, more powerful bomb was dropped on the Japanese city of Nagasaki, killing over 100,000 people. Since Japan was economically and militarily devastated by the late summer of 1945, the use of the atomic bombs on an already overcome Japan was unnecessary and unwarranted in bringing about a conclusion to the war in the Pacific. By the end of the war, the U.S. forces had pushed the Japanese far back into their country, leaving them no access to any resources from the Indies. Japanese cities and factories were being endlessly bombarded by American bombers. Louis Morton, an author on the situation felt that since . . . The Pacific Fleet had driven the Imperial Navy from the ocean and planes of the fast carrier forces were striking Japanese naval bases in the Inland Sea. . . Clearly Japan was a defeated nation.1 The decision to use the atomic bomb was validated by the U.S., who said that the force was necessary to end the war, which, in turn, would save lives of both American and Japanese soldiers. However, many believe that since Japan was already of the verge of surrender when the bombs were dropped, this argument cannot be morally validated. If Japan was almost beaten by August 1945, many say that the reason the U.S. dropped the bomb was simply to test it on living humans. Aside from the ground test in the New Mexico desert, no one knew what destruction atomic weapons were capable of. Throughout the war, the city of Hiroshima had been left virtually untouched by U.S. attacks. It is inferable, then, that the United States government hoped to see the full effect of nuclear power by detonating the atomic bomb on this locality, as they could be sure that any damage was from the atomic bomb alone. A similar reasoning could be applied to the usage of the second bomb, fat man, which was dropped on Nagasaki three days later. One could wonder if the motive behind this second attack was similar to the first; the only difference being that the bomb to be tested this time was considerably more powerful. The final say on whether or not to drop the bomb came from President Harry Truman, who had help from a special committee known as the Interim Committee. This organization was made up of Secretary Stimson as chairman; President Truman's personal representative, James F. Byrnes; the Under Secretary of the Navy, William L. Clayton; and the Assistant Secretary of State as well as many others. The work of the Interim Committee was to discuss the uses of the bomb and whether or not it would be wise to use nuclear force against Japan in combat. On July 1, 1945, the committee submitted a report to President Truman stating that: 1. The bomb should be used against Japan as soon as possible. 2. It should be used against a military target surrounded by other buildings. 3. It should be used without prior warning of the nature of the weapon. The Interim Committee decided against warning the Japanese about the atomic bomb because they claimed that they weren't sure if it would detonate. Not one of the Chiefs nor the Secretary thought well of a bomb warning, an effective argument being that no one could be certain, in spite of the assurances of the scientists, that the 'thing would go off.'2 This was refuted by many as being quite ignorant. For example, the atomic bomb was tested in Trinity Site, New Mexico, USA. It was viewed by the media, U.S. government officials and the military. Viewing the destruction firsthand should have convinced the United States that nuclear power was a real and tangible danger. They should have been quite sure at this point that the bomb would, indeed, detonate. The US wanted a quick and effective way to end the war. However, there were many other possible alternatives to dropping the bomb that should have been considered. Truman wanted an 'unconditional surrender' from Japan, but his offer to them threatened the position of their Emperor. The Japanese were unwilling to accept this as a condition to their surrender, as the Emperor in Japanese culture was considered to be godlike. Obviously, they were therefore unwilling to accept unconditional surrender. To compromise, the US could have assured Japan the retention of the status of the Emperor in the terms of surrender. It is possible that Japan would have ended the war themselves, without the U.S. ever having to use nuclear force. The United States also could have threatened Japan with a Russian invasion. The Japanese were counting on Russia to help them make peace with the U.S. without unconditionally surrendering, which they believed would result in the loss of their Emperor. If the U.S. had have convinced Japan that Russia would use force, the Japanese may have felt that it was necessary to give up, as at the time Russia was the only nation with whom Japan maintained a neutrality contract. Finally, the United States could have warned the Japanese about nuclear power as a final resort. Surely if the Japanese had known about the astronomical and devastating effects before the bombs were dropped, they would have seriously considered surrendering, no matter what the cost to their culture. The Committee on Political and Social Problems submitted to President Truman a report called The Franck Report on June 11, 1945. This committee was opposed to dropping the bomb without prior warning. From this point of view a demonstration of the new weapon may best be made before the eyes of representatives of all United Nations, on a desert or a barren island. The best possible atmosphere for the achievement of an international agreement could be achieved if America would be able to say to the world, You see what weapon we had but did not use. We are ready to renounce its use in the future and to join other nations in working out adequate supervision of the use of this nuclear weapon.3 This logical advice was therefore available to the U.S. government, and it is a shame that they chose to ignore it. Because the United States chose not to thoroughly consider all of their options in forcing Japan to surrender and end the war, the decision to bomb Hiroshima and Nagasaki was impulsive and rash. Had they considered all of the alternatives, and had only used the atomic bomb as a last resort, many lives could have been saved. It was completely hypocritical of the Americans to say that they wanted to save lives, when, instead they destroyed them.
On August 6, 1945, a B-29 bomber named Enola Gay dropped an atomic bomb, little boy on Hiroshima, Japan. Hiroshima had been almost eradicated with an estimated 70-80,000 people killed. Three days later, a second, more powerful bomb was dropped on the Japanese city of Nagasaki, killing over 100,000 people. Since Japan was economically and militarily devastated by the late summer of 1945, the use of the atomic bombs on an already overcome Japan was unnecessary and unwarranted in bringing about a conclusion to the war in the Pacific. By the end of the war, the U.S. forces had pushed the Japanese far back into their country, leaving them no access to any resources from the Indies. Japanese cities and factories were being endlessly bombarded by American bombers. Louis Morton, an author on the situation felt that since . . . The Pacific Fleet had driven the Imperial Navy from the ocean and planes of the fast carrier forces were striking Japanese naval bases in the Inland Sea. . . Clearly Japan was a defeated nation.1 The decision to use the atomic bomb was validated by the U.S., who said that the force was necessary to end the war, which, in turn, would save lives of both American and Japanese soldiers. However, many believe that since Japan was already of the verge of surrender when the bombs were dropped, this argument cannot be morally validated. If Japan was almost beaten by August 1945, many say that the reason the U.S. dropped the bomb was simply to test it on living humans. Aside from the ground test in the New Mexico desert, no one knew what destruction atomic weapons were capable of. Throughout the war, the city of Hiroshima had been left virtually untouched by U.S. attacks. It is inferable, then, that the United States government hoped to see the full effect of nuclear power by detonating the atomic bomb on this locality, as they could be sure that any damage was from the atomic bomb alone. A similar reasoning could be applied to the usage of the second bomb, fat man, which was dropped on Nagasaki three days later. One could wonder if the motive behind this second attack was similar to the first; the only difference being that the bomb to be tested this time was considerably more powerful. The final say on whether or not to drop the bomb came from President Harry Truman, who had help from a special committee known as the Interim Committee. This organization was made up of Secretary Stimson as chairman; President Truman's personal representative, James F. Byrnes; the Under Secretary of the Navy, William L. Clayton; and the Assistant Secretary of State as well as many others. The work of the Interim Committee was to discuss the uses of the bomb and whether or not it would be wise to use nuclear force against Japan in combat. On July 1, 1945, the committee submitted a report to President Truman stating that: 1. The bomb should be used against Japan as soon as possible. 2. It should be used against a military target surrounded by other buildings. 3. It should be used without prior warning of the nature of the weapon. The Interim Committee decided against warning the Japanese about the atomic bomb because they claimed that they weren't sure if it would detonate. Not one of the Chiefs nor the Secretary thought well of a bomb warning, an effective argument being that no one could be certain, in spite of the assurances of the scientists, that the 'thing would go off.'2 This was refuted by many as being quite ignorant. For example, the atomic bomb was tested in Trinity Site, New Mexico, USA. It was viewed by the media, U.S. government officials and the military. Viewing the destruction firsthand should have convinced the United States that nuclear power was a real and tangible danger. They should have been quite sure at this point that the bomb would, indeed, detonate. The US wanted a quick and effective way to end the war. However, there were many other possible alternatives to dropping the bomb that should have been considered. Truman wanted an 'unconditional surrender' from Japan, but his offer to them threatened the position of their Emperor. The Japanese were unwilling to accept this as a condition to their surrender, as the Emperor in Japanese culture was considered to be godlike. Obviously, they were therefore unwilling to accept unconditional surrender. To compromise, the US could have assured Japan the retention of the status of the Emperor in the terms of surrender. It is possible that Japan would have ended the war themselves, without the U.S. ever having to use nuclear force. The United States also could have threatened Japan with a Russian invasion. The Japanese were counting on Russia to help them make peace with the U.S. without unconditionally surrendering, which they believed would result in the loss of their Emperor. If the U.S. had have convinced Japan that Russia would use force, the Japanese may have felt that it was necessary to give up, as at the time Russia was the only nation with whom Japan maintained a neutrality contract. Finally, the United States could have warned the Japanese about nuclear power as a final resort. Surely if the Japanese had known about the astronomical and devastating effects before the bombs were dropped, they would have seriously considered surrendering, no matter what the cost to their culture. The Committee on Political and Social Problems submitted to President Truman a report called The Franck Report on June 11, 1945. This committee was opposed to dropping the bomb without prior warning. From this point of view a demonstration of the new weapon may best be made before the eyes of representatives of all United Nations, on a desert or a barren island. The best possible atmosphere for the achievement of an international agreement could be achieved if America would be able to say to the world, You see what weapon we had but did not use. We are ready to renounce its use in the future and to join other nations in working out adequate supervision of the use of this nuclear weapon.3 This logical advice was therefore available to the U.S. government, and it is a shame that they chose to ignore it. Because the United States chose not to thoroughly consider all of their options in forcing Japan to surrender and end the war, the decision to bomb Hiroshima and Nagasaki was impulsive and rash. Had they considered all of the alternatives, and had only used the atomic bomb as a last resort, many lives could have been saved. It was completely hypocritical of the Americans to say that they wanted to save lives, when, instead they destroyed them.
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